Abassian-Lintzen, R. (1964). "Tabanidae (Diptera) of Iran X. List, keys and distribution of species occurring in Iran." Annales de Parasitologie humaine et compareé 39: 285-327.
	
Abdel Karim, E. I. and G. H. Benjamin (1989). "Studies on horseflies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Southern Darfur province." Sudan Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry 28: 39-44.
	
Abdulla, M. A. and K. H. El Malik (2003). "Study of biting flies in Singa area, Central Sudan." Sudan Journal of Science and Technology 4: 8-12.
	
Acapovi, G. L., Y. Yao, et al. (2002). "Abondance relative des tabanidés dans la région des savanes de Côte d'Ivoire." Revue d'Élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 54(2): 109-114.
	Tabanids were caught with Nzi traps to study their presence, abundance, seasonal variation, ecological preferences and species diversity. The study was conducted over four seasons in four habitats (savanna, forest, gallery, and corral) in four townships in the main two livestock departments of North and Northwest Ivory Coast (Odienne and Korhogo). Out of 3104 caught specimens, 4 genera and 16 tabanid species were identified. The most abundant of caught species were Tabanus taeniola Palisot de Beauvois, 1807 (26.4%), T. par Walker, 1854 (15.6%), T. laverani Surcouf, 1907 (14.9%), and Chrysops distinctipennis Austen, 1906 (12.3%). The least abundant species were Atylotus albipalpus Walker, 1850 (6.9%), Chrysops longicornis Macquart, 1838 (6.9%), T. brumpti Surcouf, 1907 (4.8%), T. gratus Loew, 1858 (3.7%), At. agrestis Wiedemann, 1830 (1.4%), T. ricardea Surcouf, 1906 (0.5%), T. boueti Surcouf, 1907 (0.4%), T. pluto Walker, 1854 (0.3%), and An. fasciata Fabricus, 1775 (0.2%). The largest numbers of tabanids were caught in the gallery, and the fewest in the forest. There were more catches in the Odienne department than in that of Korhogo. An abundance peak occurred in March during the hot dry season, except for Korondougou township, where a peak occurred in June during the rainy season. In addition, 2471 Stomoxyinae were captured: Stomoxys niger Macquart, 1851 (70.7%) and S. calcitrans Linnaeus, 1758 (29.3%). The Stomoxyinae, represented by two species only, made up about 45% of the biting flies captured. They will have to be reckoned with when evaluating the impact of biting insects on cattle.

Adeyefa, C. A. O. and O. O. Dipeolu (1986). "Ectoparasites of horses in south-western Nigeria." Insect Science and its Application 7(4): 511-513.
	A survey of ectoparasites of horses was undertaken at stables in Lagos, Ibadan and Ilorin, Nigeria, during the rainy season from May to September 1981. The arthropods collected were Diptera such as species of Stomoxys, Tabanus, Glossina, Hippobosca and Musca, as well as some myiasis-causing species, ticks in the genera Boophilus, Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus and the lice Haematopinus equi [H. macrocephalus] and Damalinia equi [Werneckiella equi]. The activity of flies was greatest between 07.00-11.30 and 17.00-18.30 h.

Adkins, T. R. (1974). Biology, distribution, importance and control of deer flies and horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in water-oriented recreation areas. Clemson University. Water Resources Research Institute Report No.42, Water Resources Research Institute, Clemson University.
	
Ahmed, A. B. (2005). "Species diversity, abundance and seasonal ocurrence of some biting flies in southern Kaduna, Nigeria." African Journal of Biomedical Research 8: 113-118.
	A survey of biting dipterans was conducted in Kaura LGA of Kaduna State between November 2000 and October 2001. Fifteen species of biting flies were caught in two families, Tabanidae and Muscidae distributed in the following 4 genera: Tabanus 10, Haematopota 2, Chrysops 1 and Stomoxys 2. The genus Stomoxys represented by Stomoxys calcitrans Linnaeus and S. nigra Macquart had the highest abundance (62.5%), followed by the Tabanus (34.6%), Haematopota (1.8%) and Chrysops (1.1%). Generally, more flies were collected during the wet (1431; 85.1%) than the dry season (250; 14.9%) with some species occurring all year round. The widespread presence of haematophagous dipterans in the study area suggest that they could be playing a greater role in disease transmissions than previously thought. Optimum temperatures that stimulate rapid reproduction appear to fall between mean temperatures of 22.8-24.1oC. The species showed a general increase in relative abundance during the wet season and a decline in the dry season. No new country record was found. 

Ailes, M. C., L. J. Brown, et al. (1992). "Mechanical control of greenhead flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in a marsh environment." Journal of Medical Entomology 29: 160-164.
	The effectiveness of New Jersey box traps for the control of adult greenhead flies, Tabanus nigrovittatus, Macquart, T. conterminus Walker, was assessed at Wallops Island, Va. Trap shape and placement were tested. Shallow (0.45 m high) traps caught significantly fewer flies than cubic (0.60 m high) traps. Traps located in the inner two of four layers of traps caught fewer flies than traps in the outer layers.

Allan, S. A., J. F. Day, et al. (1987). "Visual ecology of biting flies." Annual Review of Entomology 32: 297-316.
	
Allan, S. A. and J. G. Stoffolano, Jr. (1986). "Effects of background contrast on visual attraction and orientation of Tabanus nigrovittatus (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Environmental Entomology 15: 689-694.
	The effect of relative intensity contrast of an object against a background on the visual attraction of host-seeking adults of Tabanus nigrovittatus was examined on a salt marsh in Massachusetts in 1982 using small test panels against large background panels. Attraction of T. nigrovittatus to grey panels was significantly greater when contrast against grey background panels was highest. Maximum numbers were attracted to high-intensity blue test panels against low-intensity grey backgounds and low-intensity saturated blue panels against all-grey backgounds regardless of intensity. The latter indicated the attractive effect of hue independent of intensity. Flies collected on test and backgound panels were clumped on the test panel (32.6%), along the boundary of the test panel and the backgound panel (59.9%) and from 15.2 to 38.0 cm above gound level (85%). Direct observation revealed that 60% of the flies approaching the panel landed and all did so below the height of initial approach. Only 20% landed immediately; the remainder flew past the panel first, then returned. The majority of flies (85.5%) approached panels at 30.4-53.2 cm above ground level.

Allan, S. A. and J. G. Stoffolano, Jr. (1986). "The effects of hue and intensity on visual attraction of adult Tabanus nigrovittatus (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 23: 83-91.
	The visual attraction of adults of Tabanus nigrovittatus to various hues and intensities was studied in a Spartina salt marsh in Massachusetts, using 2-dimensional sticky panels. Collections consisted mainly (98%) of host-seeking parous females; the remainder were nulliparous females and males. Parous females were strongly attracted to blue and moderately attracted to black and red, all of which have reflectance in the range 400-800 nm. Yellow, yellow-green and white were consistently unattractive. Attraction to white panels, with and without ultraviolet (UV) reflection, and aluminium foil varied inversely with the amount of UV reflected. Increasing or decreasing intensity of hues increased the attraction of flies; this was the result of increased contrast with the background.

Allan, S. A. and J. G. Stoffolano, Jr. (1986). "The importance of pattern in visual attraction of Tabanus nigrovittatus Macquart (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Canadian Journal of Zoology 64: 2273-2278.
	Host-seeking females of Tabanus nigrovittatus primarily use visual cues to locate hosts and host mimics. The importance of various attributes of patterns was examined in the field in Massachusetts using black and white 2-dimensional panels. Panels with a square, circle or star of equal size were equally attractive, as were panels with stars with increasingly complex edges. In a series of panels with black circles of increasing size, attraction increased as the size of the circles increased. High contour density was not important in a series of panels with increasing size and decreasing number of patterns (squares or circles), and large patterns with simple edges were most attractive. Both light objects against a dark background and dark objects against a light background were highly attractive. The response of flies to objects with stripes indicated that stripes reduced attraction, possibly as a result of shape distortion. These results indicate that solid compact large objects with high contrast against the background were the most attractive, and that fine pattern detail was not important.

Allan, S. A., J. G. Stoffolano, Jr., et al. (1991). "Spectral sensitivity of the horse fly Tabanus nigrovittatus (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Canadian Journal of Zoology 69: 369-374.
	Spectral sensitivity functions were calculated from electroretinograms recorded from dark-adapted compound eyes of male and female horse flies (Tabanus nigrovittatus Macquart). Females had a borad sensitivity in the violet to green area of the spectrum; their spectral sensitivity was fitted by a theoretical mixture containing 20% of 440-nm and 80% 520-nm rhodopsins. Older females (8-18 days) were 93 times more sensitive than 1-day-old females. Males showed a narrower sensitivity function with more blue and less green sensitivity. Older males (8-18 days) were the most blue-sensitive of all groups; their spectral sensitivity was best fitted by a mixture containing 10% 440-nm, 70% 480-nm, and 20% 520-nm rhodopsins. Older males that were light-adapted to red light showed an apparent decline in the contribution of the 520-nm rhodopsin to overall sensitivity, as expected if this pigment is present in a separate system. The sensitivity function of 1-day-old males was best fitted by a mixture of 55% 480-nm and 45% 520-nm rhodopsins. The absolute sensitivity of both groups of males was close to that of the older females. All flies had substantial ultraviolet sensitivity, averaging 67% of the sensitivity at the longer wavelength maximum. The role of the differing sensitivities in males and females, and in young and old females, is discussed in relation to the visual behavior and sexual dimorphism of horse flies.

Allen, W. A. (1974). "Distribution records of several Virginia Tabanids. (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Cooperative Economic Insect Report 24(24): 441-442.
	Eighteen species of Tabanids, including one new to the state, are recorded from Virginia, and their distribution by county is noted.

Allen, W. A. and L. L. Pechuman (1975). "New distribution records of thirty-eight species of Virginia Tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Cooperative Economic Insect Report 25(15): 305-309.
	
Allen, W. A. and L. L. Pechuman (1976). "New geographical and seasonal distribution records for fifty-three species and subspecies of Virginia tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Cooperative Plant Pest Report 1(44-47): 853-858.
	
Allen, W. A. and L. L. Pechuman (1977). "New geographical and seasonal distribution records for forty-four species and subspecies of tabanids from Virginia, Tennessee, and West Virginia." Cooperative Plant Pest Report 2(48-52): 887-891.
	Records are listed of 44 species and subspecies of tabanids from Virginia, Tennessee and West Virginia, with 1 new Virginia State record Chrysops carbonarius Wlk. ater Macq.)) and 51 new Virginia County records; the status of the Tennessee and West Virginia records is not given. The data include seasonal distribution in countries previously known to be infested. Males of Hamatabanus carolinensis (Macq.), Tabanus lineola F., T. quinquevittatus Wied. and T. subsimilis subsimilis Bellardi are reported. Attention is drawn to unusually marked examples of 4 species of Tabanus and to 5 species of which examples were caught in ultraviolet light-traps.

Al-Talafha, H., Z. S. Amr, et al. (2004). "Horseflies of Jordan." Medical and Veterinary Entomology 18(2): 208-211.
	Abstract. The horsefly (Diptera: Tabanidae) fauna of Jordan consists of 21 species belonging to seven genera. The present study adds 17 new records to this little-known group of haematophagous insects. Most of the new records were collected from several localities within the Jordan Valley. These new records are Chrysops flavipes Meigen, Atylotus farinosus (Szilady), Dasyrhamphis umbrinus (Meigen), Haematopota coronata Austen, Hybomitra decora (Loew), Hybomitra mendica (Villeneuve), Tabanus accensus Austen, T. albifacies Loew, T. bifarius Loew, T. darimonti Leclercq, T. laetetinctus Becker, T. leleani Austen, T. pallidipes Austen, T. regularis Jaennicke, T. rupinae Austen, T. sufis Jaennicke and Therioplectes tunicatus (Szilady). Tabanus albifacies and T. sufis were the most common species collected by hand nets (19.85% and 17.73%, respectively) and D.umbrinus, Haematopota minuscula Austen, and Haematopota coronata were the least common species (0.12% for each). Zoogeographical analysis of the recorded species showed that 12 species are of Mediterranean origin, four are of Afrotropical origin, two of European origin and at least three species can be considered as endemic to the Middle East.

Alverson, D. R. and R. Noblet (1977). "Activity of female Tabanidae (Diptera) in relation to selected meteorological factors in South Carolina." Journal of Medical Entomology 14(2): 197-200.
	Hourly measurements of meteorological parameters and tabanid activity were made in South Carolina during daylight periods from 10 June to 28 September 1975. Analysis of the collection data indicated that the activity of tabanids attracted to traps baited with carbon dioxide was affected by barometric pressure, temperature, relative humidity, time of day, and cloud cover. A prediction equation involving the most significant variables was developed. A discernible difference in trap catches was noted for different cloud types. Wind and light intensity had no effect on tabanid activity.

Amin, O. M. and A. G. Hageman (1974). "Mosquitoes and Tabanids in southeast Wisconsin." Mosquito News 34(2): 170-177.
	CDC traps and traps baited with carbon dioxide were operated for 48 h at fortnightly intervals from April to October 1972 at three sites in Kenosha County, south-eastern Wisconsin. Biting female mosquitos were collected during the evening at two of the sites. Fourteen species of mosquitos were represented in the catches, including 9 not previously recorded from the county, and 10 species of Tabanids, including 7 not previously recorded. The mosquito species recorded for the first time were Anopheles punctipennis (Say), Aedes cinereus Mg., A. communis (Deg.), A. dorsalis (Mg.), A. flavescens (Mull.), A. stimulans (Wlk.), A. triseriatus (Say), A. trivittatus (Coq.) and Culiseta inornata (Will.). A. vexans (Mg.) was the most numerous species, followed by A. trivittatus. Seasonal changes in mosquito abundance as revealed by the trapping and biting catches are described and discussed in relation to temperature and rainfall, and notes are given on the diurnal activity and habitat preferences of some of the species.

Amoudi, M. A. (1989). "New records of Tabanidae (Diptera) from southwest Saudi Arabia with some aspects on their descriptions and biological information." Journal of Biological Science Research 20(1): 115-127.
	Ancala latipes, Atylotus agrestis, Haematopota abyssinica, Tabanus taeniola and T. biguttatus were collected from southwestern Saudi Arabia (Tihama-Asir region). The first 4 species are new records for the country. Information is provided on the distribution and biology of each species.

Amoudi, M. A. and M. Leclercq (1988). "Tabanus riyadhae (Diptera: Tabanidae), a new species from Saudi Arabia." Journal of Medical Entomology 25(5): 399-401.
	Tabanus riyadhae sp. nov. from Al-Zolfi, central region of Saudi Arabia, is described. The species belongs to the Palaearctic group I of Tabanus s.s. It is clearly distinct from all previously known Palaearctic and Afrotropical species. A checklist of the 22 known species of Saudi Arabian Tabanidae is given and includes 2 additional species (Philoliche magrettii and P. auricomus) not reported previously for the country.

Amoudi, M. A. and M. Leclercq (1992). "The horse-flies from Saudi Arabia. Distribution and zoogeography (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Notes Fauniques de Gembloux 25: 3-15.
	Twenty-two species of Tabanidae (representing the tribes Philolichini, Tabanini and Haematopotini) have now been reported from Saudi Arabia. A checklist for these species is provided, and their wider geographical distribution is discussed. In summary, 12 species are Afrotropical, 8 are Palaearctic and 2 are restricted to Saudi Arabia. [In a subsequent erratum, it is indicated that on pp. 6-7 the Mediterranean component of the Palaearctic fauna should read: Atylotus farinosus, Tabanus albifacies, T. arabicus, T. fumidus, T. leleani turkestanicus and T. subuletorum; the European component of the Palaearctic fauna should read: T. cordiger and T. unifasciatus; and the Saudi Arabian fauna should read: A. pallescens and T. riyadhae.

Amoudi, M. A. and M. LeClercq (1993). "First records and addition of two species Atylotus agricola (Wiedemann) and Haematopota minuscula Austen (Diptera: Tabanidae) from Saudi Arabia." Egyptian Journal of Applied Science 8(12): 1087-1092.
	A. agricola and H. minuscula are recorded for the 1st time from Saudi Arabia, increasing the number of Tabanidae known from this country to 24. Records of Tabanus arabicus, T. sufis, T. taeniola and T. unifasciatus are also given. A revised checklist of the tabanid fauna of Saudi Arabia is presented.

Amoudi, M. A. and M. Leclercq (1996). "New records of Tabanidae (Diptera) from Saudi Arabia, first record of Atylotus venturii Leclercq and Tabanus separatus Efflatoun." Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 26(1): 1-7.
	Atylotus venturii Leclercq and Tabanus separatu Efflatoun (Diptera: Tabanidae) are 2 additional species in Saudi Arabia, they lift up to 26 taxa known from the country. Some comments on new record of other species, zoogeographical distribution of Tabanus sufis, taxonomic significance of eye pattern of Tabanidae, exemplification with T. albifacies and T. unifasciatus, rehydration of dry specimens, are presented.

Amsler, S. and J. Filledier (1994). "Attractivité pour les Tabanidae de l'association méta-crésol/octénol: Résultats obtenus au Burkina Faso." Revue d'Élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 47: 93-96.
	In Burkina Faso, the efficiency of 3 different types of traps baited or not with a mixture of odour attractants (meta-cresol/octenol) against tabanids was compared with 2 experiments during the dry season. Catches increased 1.5-3X when the traps were baited with odour attractants. The NG-2G trap and the screen-trap gave comparable results and were significantly more attractive than the F3 trap. The advancing dry season did not alter these findings. It was also noted, however, that there were probable trapping-effects.

Amsler, S. and J. Filledier (1994). "Comparaison de différents systèmes de collecte avec deux types de pièges pour la capture des glossines et des Tabanidés." Revue d'Élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 47: 387-396.
	The efficiency of biconical (Challier-Laveissiere) and monoconical (Merot) traps with a cage or a bottle as a collecting system for Glossina tachinoides, G. morsitans submorsitans and Tabanidae was evaluated in 1992 and 1994 at the Comoe site, Burkina Faso by CIRDES. The bottle increased the catches of G. tachinoides only when used with the monoconical trap, but the numbers collected were always smaller than with the biconical trap/cage system. The biconical trap with a bottle gave results which varied according to the year, but these results were never more than equal to those with the cage. The differences were more significant in the catches of males. The biconical trap associated with a cage was the most efficient system for catching G. morsitans submorsitans. The bottle reduced the catches with both types of trap. The use of the bottle increased (and sometimes doubled) the catches of tabanids with both types of trap.

Amsler, S., J. Filledier, et al. (1994). "Attractivité pour les Tabanidae de différents pièges à glossines avec ou sans attractifs olfactifs. Résultats préliminaires obtenus au Burkina Faso." Revue d'Élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 47: 63-68.
	During the dry season, 3 experiments were performed in the sub-humid savannah area of Burkina Faso to compare the attractiveness and efficacy of 5 different tsetse traps against Tabanidae together with the evaluation of 2 olfactory attractants. The NG-2G and F3 traps and the screen-trap were significantly more effective (X1.7 to 8.7) than the biconical and monoconical ones. Metacresol increased the catches by an average of X1.5, and the metacresol/octenol association (3:1) X2.5 in comparison with the control trap with no attractant at all.

Anderson, J. F. (1971). "Autogeny and mating and their relationship to biting in the saltmarsh deer fly, Chrysops atlanticus (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 64(6): 1421-1424.
	Autogeny is reported in natural populations of Chrysops
atlanticus Pechuman and Tabanus nigroiiittatus Macquart.
Nonbiting virgin C. atlanticus and females collected
in copula in the marsh possessed developing or
fully formed ovarian follicles. None had previously fed
on blood or deposited eggs. Biting females, most of
which were encountered in wooded areas adjacent to
the marsh, were fertilized, and all had deposited eggs as
evidenced by the presence of ovarian follicular relics.
Follicles in biting’flies were in. a stage of development
beyond which they would not advance unless the females
obtained a meal of blood. None of the biting females had
fed on blood prior to being captured.
Mating of C. atlanticus was observed only in the morning.
• Males were observed hovering 3 to 4 feet above
ground in open areas formed by lodged S.’alterni flora and
surrounded by upright stems. Hovering was observed as
early as 0520 and as late as 0645. hours. Mating pairs
were collected between 0545 and and 0645 on the standing
grass immediately adjacent to the openings.

Anderson, J. F. (1972). "Biting behaviour of saltmarsh deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 66: 21-27.
	During studies in a salt marsh in Connecticut it was found that the biting cycle of Chrysops atlanticus Pechuman is bimodal. The first main biting period started shortly after sunrise and lasted about 3 h, and a second less intense period of biting began about 2 h before sunset and terminated shortly before sunset. Chrysops fuliginosus Wied. had a single peak in its biting cycle. The main biting period began in late morning and continued for about 3 h. On man, C. atlanticus landed on all parts of the body, but preferred the upper parts, particularly the back of a person walking at a slow pace. Under similar conditions, C. fuliginosus landed mainly on the head and back of the neck. On a seated man, C. atlanticus readily landed on the lower parts of the body. Both species bit man, but each had difficulty ingesting blood. This trait encourages each species to bite intermittently. The incidents of attacks by these two species was much higher in wooded areas than in adjacent open areas.

Anderson, J. F. (1985). "The control of horse flies and deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Myia 3: 547-598.
	This review considers the control of tabanids using environmental modification and physical control, chemical control, and biological (and natural) control. The efficacies of various insecticides against larvae and adults are tabulated. Information is provided on parasitoids of eggs, larvae and pupae, and of nematode parasites of larvae.

Anderson, J. F. and L. A. Magnarelli (1978). "Cometoides pechumani sp.n. (Protozoa: Eugregarinida), a gregarine parasite of salt marsh deerflies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 31(3): 324-328.
	Cometoides pechumani n.sp. is described from larvae and adults of Chrysops fuliginosus and from a pupa of C. atlanticus in the USA. Stages of the gregarine were found in the fore-, mid-, and hindguts. The globular to spherical epimerite possessed at least 14 long filaments. The cephalic sporadins were elongate, cylindrical, and tapered. Mean length was 998 mu m. Mean diameters of the gametocysts were 519.8 X 558 mu m. Oocysts (spores) were hexagonal in outline with polar spines and 2 bands of equatorial spines. Their mean length and width were 7.35 X 4.32 mu m. Incidence of infection of field-collected C. fuliginosus larvae was greatest in summer when rates were as high as 89%. Infection during winter ranged from 30 to 58%. Incidence of infection of adult C. fuliginosus never exceeded 7%. The gametocysts of the new species are considerably larger than those described for the 4 other species in this genus, which were all found in beetles.

Anderson, J. F. and L. A. Magnarelli (1979). "Entomophthora tabanivora, a new pathogen in horseflies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 34(3): 263-266.
	Entomophthora tabanivora sp.n. is described from a parous female of Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq. collected in Massachusetts. Conidiophores were abundant on the membranous areas of the head, thorax and anterior abdominal sternites. They were determinate, macronemous, unbranched, cream-coloured and measured 89.1 X 18.9 mu m. Primary conidia were multinucleate, broadly pyriform and measured 36.7 X 32.4 mu m. Hyphal bodies were branched, coenocytic and averaged 54.8 mu m long and 15.3 mu m wide.

Anderson, J. R. (1989). "Use of deer models to study larviposition by wild nasopharyngeal bot flies (Diptera: Oestridae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 26(3): 234-236.
	In California, deer models baited with carbon dioxide and with CO2 plus 1-octen-3-ol and Deer Trail Scent attracted and induced females of Cephenemyia apicata and C. jellisoni to larviposit on them. Larvae were not deposited on unbaited models. Females of both species were seen at baited models, and an insect trapping adhesive (Stikem Special or Tangle Trap) applied to the nostrils, muzzle and lips of models revealed that all larvae were stuck to the lips and bottom part of the muzzle. The models also attracted and caught most other parasitic Diptera (e.g. Ceratopogonidae, Simuliidae, Culicidae, Rhagionidae, Tabanidae and Muscidae) known to attack California black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) in the study area.

Anderson, J. R. and A. C. Nilssen (1996). "Trapping oestrid parasites of reindeer: the response of Cephenemyia trompe and Hypoderma tarandi to baited traps." Medical and Veterinary Entomology 10: 337-346.
	At 340-360 km North of the Arctic Circle in Norway, Hypoderma tarandi (L.) and Cephenemyia trompe (Modeer) females were caught in baited traps from 10 July to 21 August. During three summers, adverse climatic conditions inhibited flight activity of these oestrids on 56-68% of the days. Flies were not caught prior to or after these dates, nor at winds above 8 m/s, temperatures below 10 degrees C, light intensities below 20,000 lux, or during periods of rain or snow. CO2-baited insect flight traps caught significantly more H.tarandi females than non-baited traps. However, neither a white reindeer hide or reindeer interdigital pheromone glands enhanced the attraction of CO2 to H.tarandi or C.trompe. Hypoderma tarandi females also were attracted to mobile people, but not to stationary individuals. There were no significant differences in the number of C.trompe or H.tarandi caught in CO2-baited traps in a birch/willow woods, on the treeless vidda (= tundra-like biome), or at woods:vida ecotone sites. Flies were caught in traps on days when the nearest reindeer herds were 25-100 km away. Significantly more H.tarandi and C.trompe were caught from 09.30 to 14.30 hours than from 14.30 to 19.30 hours; no flies were caught from 20.00 to 07.00 hours (Norwegian Standard Time = NST). Because of CO2-baited traps caught from hundreds to thousands of mosquitoes, blackflies and Culicoides midges, when climatic conditions inhibited oestrid activity, reindeer aggregations and movements attributed to insect attacks during warm sunny days may be largely in response to attacks by H.tarandi and C.trompe.

Anderson, J. R. and A. C. Nilssen (1998). "Do reindeer aggregate on snow patches to reduce harassment by parasitic flies or to thermoregulate?" Rangifer 18(1): 3-17.
	During warm, sunny days (maximum temperature 22-25°C) CO2-baited traps operated at sites on and off snow patches (SPs) in subarctic Norway caught significantly fewer mosquitoes (Aedes communis, A. nigripes, A. pionips, A. punctor), simuliids (Metacnephia saileri, Prosimulium hirtipes, Simulium corbis, S. ornatum, S. rostratum, S. vernum) and tabanids (Hybomitra auripila) on snow in both 1985 and 1987. However, for overnight catches (18.30-07.30 h), there was no significant difference in the number of culicids caught on vs off SPs. Analysis of videotapes taken in 1987 showed that defensive anti-fly behaviours of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) on and off SPs remained low (<0.25 min) throughout the day. Based on reindeer anti-fly behaviours, harassment was greatest from 10.30 to 12.30 h (Norwegian Standard Time), but reindeer continued to aggregate on SPs while anti-fly behaviours were lowest (13.30-20.00 h). Groups of >150 animals often occupied the entire surface of a snow patch. At the fly densities and climatic conditions encountered, it seemed apparent that reindeer intermittently used SPs primarily to thermoregulate following periods of foraging. Almost all reindeer remained on SPs from 11.00 to 12.30 h, but at other times between 08.00 and 19.00 h about half the herd (ca. 800 animals) foraged for about an hour while the other half aggregated on SPs. However, by 20.00 h, during the cooler period when trap catches of mosquitoes were increasing, almost all reindeer had moved off SPs. The small decreases in anti-fly defensive behaviours observed for reindeer on SPs versus animals foraging in snow-free areas indicated that their presence on SPs may have resulted in a minor, coincidental reduction in harassment. Significantly more tabanids were caught during the morning trapping period than at other times, and significantly more mosquitoes were caught during the evening/overnight trapping period than at other times.

Anderson, J. R., A. C. Nilssen, et al. (2001). "Use of host-mimicking trap catches to determine which parasitic flies attack reindeer, Rangifer tarandus, under different climatic conditions." Canadian Field Naturalist 115: 274-286.
	
Anderson, J. R., W. Olkowski, et al. (1974). "The response of Tabanid species to CO2-baited insect flight traps in northern California (Diptera : Tabanidae)." Pan Pacific Entomologist 50(3): 255-268.
	Details are given of catches of Tabanids in Malaise-type traps [cf. RAE/B 54, p. 191] baited with carbon dioxide [cf. 61, 443] and operated in northern California from 6th April to 26th June 1966. Females of 18 species were taken; Silvius notatus (Big.), Tabanus similis Macq., T. kesseli Philip and Apatolestes comastes Will. made up 78% of the total. Wind direction and the percentage canopy cover surrounding traps had little effect on the numbers at various sites. The ratio of Tabanids caught in traps baited with carbon dioxide to those in unbaited traps was 57:1. The temperature range at which all species sought hosts was 23.9-32.2 deg C. Normal host-seeking times for most species were markedly altered on hot days (days with daily maximum temperatures above 32.2 deg C). Of the 18 species trapped, 11 also fed on tame deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) at temperatures between 21.1 and 37.8 deg C. Species of Chrysops fed on the face and ears, Silvius most commonly on the rear legs, Hybomitra on the face and Tabanus on the neck, back and rarely the face. The ratio of Symphoromyia to Tabanids feeding on deer was about 40:1.

Andreeva, R. V. (1982). "The ecological-morphological typing of larvae of horse-flies (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie 61(1): 43-49.
	On the basis of ecological studies carried out in the USSR and a functional evaluation of morphological structure, 3 morphological types of larvae of Tabanidae are established, which can be used in the study of the taxonomy and systematics of this group, and in the construction of keys for the identification of tabanid larvae.

Andreeva, R. V. (1984). Ecology of tabanid larvae and their parasites (Ekologiia lichinok slepnei i ikh parazitozy)., 171 pp. Kiev, Akademiia nauk Ukrainskoi SSR. Institut zoologii im. I.I.
	In this book from the USSR, the author deals with the morphology, biology and ecology of tabanid larvae, the effects of various factors on their development, their zonal distribution in the Ukrainian SSR and the parasites and diseases of tabanid larvae and pupae (viruses, bacteria, fungi, Protozoa and mermithid nematodes).

Andreeva, R. V. (1986). "Revision of horsefly larvae of the group Tabanus bromius (Tabanidae)." Parazitologiya 20(4): 265-271.
	New descriptions of three species and one subspecies of larvae of T. semenovi Ols., T. regularis Jaenn., T. laetetinctus laetetinctus Beck., and T. l. sordes Bog. et Sam. as well as a key to larvae of the group T. bromius, excluding two rare species T. armenicus Szil. and T. hissaricus Bar., are given. Such characters as shape and size of chaetoid fields on thoracic and abdominal segments and the character of pattern of the caudal segment are used.

Andreeva, R. V. (1990). Identification of the larvae of horse-flies from the European part of the USSR, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Kiev, Naukova dumka.
	
Andreeva, R. V. (1999). "Biogeography of palaearctic horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) and morphoecological studies on their larvae." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 271-303.
	
Andrews, P. I. and C. W. Wingo (1975). "Annotated list and keys to deer flies and horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) of Missouri." Transactions of the Missouri Academy of Science 9: 3-20.
	Identification keys and an annotated list of the Tabanidae of Missouri are presented. Nine genera and 54 species are recorded for the state. Two additional genera and eleven species not yet collected in the state are included as possible taxa.

Angioy, A. M., A. Liscia, et al. (1982). "Electrophysiological responses of labellar chemosensilla in Tabanus atratus Fabricius to NaCl and sucrose." Bollettino della Societa Italiana di Biologia Sperimentale 58(11): 678-682.
	Evidence is presented, from the results of electrophysiological studies in the laboratory, for the chemosensory activity of the longest hairs located on the aboral surfaces of the labella in males of Tabanus atratus atratus F. collected from freshwater marshes in Massachusetts. At least 4 chemosensory units were present in each labellar chemosensillum, which could be activated by both salt and sugar; their sensitivity thresholds for these chemicals were 100-250 and 100-500 mm, respectively.

Arnaud, P. H., Jr. (1985). "A catalog of the Tabanidae (Diptera) in the collection of the California Academy of Sciences." Myia 3: 617-712.
	
Arnett, R. H., Jr. (2001). American insects. A handbook of the insects of America north of Mexico. Boca Raton, CRC Press.
	
Axtell, R. C. and J. C. Dukes (1974). ULV chemical control of mosquitoes, Culicoides and tabanids in coastal North Carolina. Proceedings and Papers of the Forty-second Annual Conference of the California Mosquito Control Association, Inc. and the Thirtieth Annual Meeting of the American Mosquito Control Association, Inc., Anaheim, California.
	Non-thermal aerosols of two insecticides, 95% malathion and a mixture of 5% pyrethrins with 15% piperonyl butoxide, were applied from a generator mounted on a truck moving at 10 miles/h in tests against several species of insects on the coast of North Carolina. Mortalities were recorded 3 h after application in tests against caged Tabanids situated 100 ft from the line of travel. Synergised pyrethrins dispersed at the rates shown in brackets caused mortalities of 78% against Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq. (3.5 US fl oz/min), 28% against Chrysops fuliginosus Wied. (4.0) and 52, 32 and 61% against C. atlanticus Pechuman (3.5, 4.0 and 7.0). The corresponding results for malathion were 28% (4.3), 54% (4.3) and 66, 91 and 99% (3.5, 4.3 and 7.0). As measured by light-trap collections made immediately before and one night after the applications, pyrethrins at 3.5 US fl oz/min caused 64% reduction in the numbers of Culicoides (mainly C. furens (Poey)) and 48% reduction in those of mosquitos (mainly Aedes taeniorhynchus (Wied.), A. sollicitans (Wlk.) and Anopheles bradleyi King); pyrethrins at 4.0 US fl oz/min caused reductions of 27 and 34%, respectively; malathion caused 0 and 43% at 3.0 US fl oz/min and 47 and 24% at 4.3.

Axtell, R. C., T. D. Edwards, et al. (1975). "Rigid canopy trap for Tabanidae (Diptera)." Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society 10(1): 67-73.
	Specifications are given for construction of a rigid canopy trap modified from the Manitoba trap, which withstands continuous exposure in coastal salt marshes. Collections of adult Tabanids by this trap included large numbers of a greater variety of species than were collected by a New Jersey box trap (a modified Manning trap).

Baier, T. M. (1999). "A revision of the flavidus group of the genus Chrysops Meigen (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 101(1): 175-196.
	A taxonomic revision of the Nearctic C. flavidus species group is provided with a key to species, descriptions, distribution maps, and illustrations of wings and antennae for each of the 9 species currently recognized in this group (of which 7 were previously known: C. atlanticus, C. brunneus, C. celatus, C. dixianus, C. flavidus, C. pudicus and C. reicherti). The relationships and identification of these 9 species are based on analysis of morphological similarity involving 13 critical characters. A total of 4843 specimens from 14 institutions was examined during this study. Two new species in the C. flavidus group are described, C. sandyi sp. nov. (from Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi, USA) and C. tumidicornis sp. nov. (from Florida), both previously misidentified as C. atlanticus. The male of C. dixianus is described for the first time.

Bailey, N. S. (1948). "The hovering and mating of Tabanidae: a review of the literature with some original observations." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 41: 403-412.
	
Balfour, A. (1906). "Biting and noxious insects other than mosquitoes." Welcome Tropical Research Laboratory 2nd Report: 201-248.
	
Ballard, J. W. O. and J. K. Waage (1988). "Feeding strategies of the horseflies Hybomitra expollicata and Tabanus bromius in southern France." Medical and Veterinary Entomology 2(3): 265-270.
	Blood-feeding success of female horseflies, Hybomitra expollicata Pandellé and Tabanus bromius L. (Diptera: Tabanidae), was studied. Bloodmeal weights of flies permitted different periods of residence on a horse's belly were estimated, and related to subsequent ovarian development and the number of mature eggs produced. Fitness gain per visit to a host (as estimated by the number of mature eggs produced) increased more rapidly with residence time on the host for H. expollicata than for T. bromius. H. expollicata imbibed blood more rapidly and, above a threshold bloodmeal size, produced a consistently higher number of eggs per unit weight of blood ingested. The feeding strategies of the two species are compared.

Barass, R. (1960). "The ecology of Haematopota insidiatrix Austgen (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Southern Rhodesia." Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 3: 212-221.
	
Barass, R. (1960). "The settling of female Haematopota insidiatrix Austen (Diptera, Tabanidae) on cloth screens." Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 3: 257-266.
	
Baribeau, L. and A. Maire (1983). "Abundance and seasonal distribution of Tabanidae in a temperate and in a subarctic locality of Québec." Mosquito News 43: 135-143.
	The seasonal distribution of tabanids at Trois-Rivieres (in the temperate zone of Quebec) and the Lake Delorme area (in the high subarctic) was studied in 1977 and 1978. Of the 43 species collected in southern Quebec, Chrysops aestuans Wulp was the dominant species, followed by Hybomitra pechumani Teskey & Thomas, H. lasiophthalma (Macq.), C. frigidus O.-S. and H. zonalis (Kby.). The flight period began in mid-May, with the greatest abundance from mid-June to mid-July. Five phenological groups were distinguished by first appearance of the species and their respective abundance peaks. In the Lake Delorme area, 20 species were identified, of which 12 were also present in the southernmost area. H. arpadi (Szil.) was the dominant species, followed by C. furcatus Wlk., C. excitans Wlk. and H. zonalis. The flight period began on 8 July, with most activity during the 3rd week of July.

Baribeau, L. and A. Maire (1983). "Latitudinal distribution of Quebec Tabanidae." Mosquito News 43(1): 7-13.
	The latitudinal distribution of 79 of the 82 species of Tabanidae known from Quebec is described and discussed. The genera and (in brackets) numbers of species present in the temperate life zone are Chrysops (30), Hybomitra (22), Tabanus (13), Atylotus (3), Stonemyia (2) and Haematopota (1); 27 species have their northern limit in this zone and 3 their southern limit. Tabanus and Haematopota reach their general northern limit in the subarctic zone, and Atylotus and Chrysops in the hemiarctic zone. Only 4 species of Hybomitra are known to be present in the true arctic zone.

Baribeau, L. and A. Maire (1983). "Spatial distribution of Tabanidae (adults and larvae) in two bogs of southern Quebec." Mosquito News 43(1): 24-29.
	In studies on the spatial distribution of tabanids in a bog and a fen in southern Quebec, 21 species of Chrysops, 13 of Hybomitra, 5 of Tabanus and 1 of Atylotus were recorded from adults collected in Malaise traps; 7 of these were found only in the bog and 4 only in the fen. Of the total number of species, 11 were also found as larvae during a simultaneous sampling survey of the peat moss substrate of these bogs (2 Chrysops, 8 Hybomitra and 1 Atylotus). Mean larval density was 1.49/0.1 m2, randomly distributed (Poisson distribution). The potential productivity was estimated to be about 146 000 larvae/ha. There was a significant difference in larval distribution between open sites and forested areas. The results of adult trapping and larval sampling are compared and discussed.

Barros, A. T. M. (1996). "Seasonality of Phaeotabanus fervens (Diptera: Tabanidae) in the Pantanal Region, Brazil." Memorias Do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 97: 159.
	
Barros, A. T. M. (2001). "Seasonality and relative abundance of Tabanidae (Diptera) captured on horses in the Pantanal, Brazil." Memorias Do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 96: 917-923.
	Once a month, from June 1992 to May 1993, collections of tabanids on horse were conducted in the Nhecolândia, Pantanal State of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. Tabanid catches using hand nets were conducted from sunrise to sunset at grassland and cerradão (dense savanna) habitats. A total of 3,442 tabanids from 21 species,12 genera, and 3 subfamilies were collected. Although species abundance varied seasonally depending on habitat, no habitat specificity was observed for the most abundant species. In the grassland, 1,625 (47.2%) tabanids belonging to 19 species were collected, while 1,817 (52.8%) tabanids from 17 species were caught in the cerradão. The number of tabanid species varied from 7 during winter
(July/August) to 15 in the spring (October). Tabanus importunus (56%) was the most abundant species, followed by T. occidentalis (8.2%), and T. claripennis (8.1%). The tabanid peak, in October, coincided with the beginning of the rainy season. The population peak of most species, including those with higher vector potential, suggests that the rainy season can be considered as the period of potentially higher risk of mechanical transmission of pathogens by tabanids to horses in the region.

Barros, A. T. M. and L. D. Foil (2007). "The influence of distance on movement of tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) between horses." Veterinary Parasitology 144(3-4): 380-384.
	Two studies evaluated the potential use of spatial barriers to reduce the mechanical transmission of disease agents by tabanids in the Pantanal region of Brazil. Tabanids at stations separated by four different distances (5, 10, 25, and 50 m) were marked. In the first study, tabanids were marked and allowed to feed until engorgement or natural interruption occurred and captured if they transferred to the other horse. A total of 2847 tabanids belonging to nine different species were marked. The percentage of tabanids that moved between horses was 10.5 at 5 m, 6.8 at 10 m, and 4.6 at 25 m. In the second study, flies were marked, feeding was then interrupted, and the flies were released approximately 50 cm from the host. A total of 1274 tabanids belonging to five different species were marked. The percentage of flies that moved between horses was 9.7 at 5 m, 9.7 at 10 m, and 4.6 at 25 m. No tabanids transferred between animals separated by 50 m in either experiment. The results of this study strongly support the recommendation that segregation of animals effectively prevents the mechanical transmission of pathogens by tabanids.

Barros, A. T. M. and I. d. S. Gorayeb (1996). "A checklist and identification key to the Tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) from Nhecolandia subregion of the Pantanal, State of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil." Revista Brasileira de Biologia 56(3): 547-551.
	From 1991 to 1994, tabanid captures were carried out in the Nhecolandia subregion of the Pantanal wetland, Mato Grosso do Sul state, Brazil. A checklist and the identification key for the 30 species of Tabanidae collected from this area are presented. Also illustrations of general morphology of Tabanidae and main characters presented in the key are given.

Barros, T. and L. Foil (1999). "Seasonal occurrence and relative abundance of Tabanidae (Diptera) from the Pantanal region, Brazil." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 387-394.
	
Bartlett, K., S. R. Alm, et al. (2002). "The horse and deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) of Rhode Island." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 95(5): 547-551.
	The Tabanidae of Rhode Island were surveyed using Rhode Island canopy traps placed at 20 locations in the state during the summers of 1999 and 2000. In total, 5,120 flies were collected, which included 55 species in the genera Chrysops, Hybomitra, Tabanus, Merycomyia, and Stonemyia. Distributional and ecological information is provided for each species in Rhode Island.

Basu, B. C., P. B. Menon, et al. (1952). "Regional distribution of Tabanus flies in India and its relationship to the incidence of surra." Indian Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry 22: 273-292.
	
Bay, D. E., N. C. Ronald, et al. (1976). "Evaluation of a synthetic pyrethroid for tabanid control on horses and cattle." Southwestern Entomologist 1(4): 198-203.
	An emulsifiable concentrate and a dust formulation of the synthetic pyrethroid permethrin (which has proved effective in the laboratory and in the field against tabanids [see preceding abstract]) were evaluated on horses, ponies and calves in Texas against Tabanus subsimilis Bellardi, T. sulcifrons Macq. and T. proximus Wlk. Emulsion sprays containing 0.05 or 0.1% active ingredient applied to calves at rates of 1 litre/animal resulted in 90% mortality of flies exposed to the animals 9 and 14 days after treatment, respectively; these same dosages applied to horses and ponies gave 90% mortality 12 and 18 days after treatment. Dust formulations containing 0.025% toxicant were less effective on both cattle and horses, but dust formulations containing 0.25% toxicant gave 90% kill of flies exposed to treated cattle and horses 10 and 12 days, respectively, after treatment.

Beesley, W. N. and W. Crewe (1963). "The bionomics of Chrysops silacea Austen, 1907 II. - The biting-rhythm and dispersal in rain-forest." Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 57: 191-203.
	
Bennett, G. F. (1960). "On some ornithophilic blood-sucking Diptera in Algonquin Park, Ontario, Canada." Canadian Journal of Zoology 38: 377-389.
	
Bennett, G. F. and S. M. Smith (1968). "Phosphorous32 for marking Tabanidae (Diptera)." Mosquito News 28: 559-569.
	
Bergersen, R., P. Straumfors, et al. (2004). "The distribution of horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in North Norway." Norwegian Journal of Entomology 51: 3-26.
	Based on 2805 dry pinned specimens collected over the last 120 years, it was found that the Tabanidae
in North Norway consisted of eighteen species within the genera Chrysops (3), Hybomitra (12),
Atylotus (1), Heptatoma (1) and Haematopota (1). Of these, six species were regarded as being
widespread and very common: Chrysops nigripes, C. relictus, Hybomitra aterrima, H. kaurii, H.
montana and Haematopota pluvialis, while other species locally occurred in large numbers (e. g. H.
arpadi in inner Finnmark). The records were plotted on maps, and the species’ distribution was
compared with reports from Europe, northern Russia and North America. Seven species were regarded
as circumpolar: Chrysops nigripes, Hybomitra polaris, H. sexfasciata, H. arpadi, H. nitidifrons,
H. lurida and Atylotus sublunaticornis. The North American Hybomitra sexfasciata and the European
H. kaurii are suggested to be one variable species. In some species (C. nigripes, H. kaurii, H.
nigricornis, H. montana), and in comparison with southern material, dark colours seemed common.
In many species, morphological variation (either genetic or non-genetic) was found to be high. The
main period of seasonal appearance was between 20 June and 15 August, with an overall peak in
July. The paper reports the capture of males in CO2-baited traps.

Bermudez, L. V. and E. M. Bermudez (1999). "Immature stages of some Tabanidae (Diptera) species in Mexico." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 257-270.
	
Bernard, G. and W. Miller (1968). "Interference filters in the corneas of Diptera." Investigative Opthamology 7: 416-434.
	Many Dipteran compound eyes, especially the Tabanidae, show colored reflection patterns when illuminated with white light. For instance, the female horsefly Hybomitra lasiophthalma compound eye, when viewed from the same direction as the illumination, displays a stripsd pattern consisting of 5 dark stripes, predominantly bluish, and 4 bright stripes, predominantly orangish. The pattern consists of reflections originating from a small locally flat part of each corneal facet surface and from facet intersections. The colored reflections were found to be a constant feature of living eyes, fixed eyes, and of isolated corneas. Patterns of other colored Dipteran eyes, rather than having a striped appearance, may be uniform in appearance, or be subdivided into irregular areas, or even may consist of alternating rows of two facet types, of different colors. We have studied the structure of such Dipteran corneal facets with optical and electron microscopes. This study reveals a specialized system of alternating dense and rare layers located fust beneath the front corneal surface. Variation in color and intensity of reflections over such eyes, for fixed viewing and illumination angles, was found to be caused by variations in parameters of the specialized layer system. A theoretical model was used to gain insight into the behavior of the layer system. Parameters of the layer system were related to reflection properties. The calculations show these layer systems to be interference filters composed of quarter-wavelength layers. The behavior of reflection properties as a function of incident angle and wavelength is supported by the calculations. We feel that the corneal interference filters probably play the same role in compound eyes that colored oil droplets (absorption filters) play in some vertebrate eyes, that is, to perform a contrast filtering function for vision.

Bernard, G. D. (1971). "Evidence for visual function of corneal interference filters." Journal of Insect Physiology 17: 2287-2300.
	
Bhasker, C. G. and S. A. Joseph (1986). "The horse fly (Tabanus)." Centaur 3(1): 15-19.
	An account is given of Indian Tabanidae of the genera Tabanus, Chrysops and Haematopota. Sections are devoted to the life cycle, adult biology, pathogenesis and control. The methods of control listed include hand-collection by children of egg-masses from vegetation overhanging water, and collection of adults; application of malathion or Sumithion [fenitrothion] to stable walls or if necessary on the animals themselves; application of neem oil as a repellent (for use on horses); managing the grazing periods for stock so as to avoid the peak period of biting activity of the flies; and draining of places where larvae develop.

Bickley, W. E. (1977). "Diversity of tabanid fauna in two Maryland counties (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 79(4): 620-621.
	The relative abundance of common tabanid species is reported and discussed for Prince George's and St. Mary's Counties, Maryland, from trap collections in 1973 and 1975, respectively. A total of 17 species is listed.

Blackburn, J. K. (2006). Evaluating the spatial ecology of anthrax in North America: examining epidemiological components across multiple geographic scales using a GIS-based approach, PhD Thesis. Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Louisiana State University. PhD: 126.
	This dissertation explores the spatial ecology and potential pathways of infection of anthrax,
Bacillus anthracis, in North America. A multi-scale approach was used to evaluate the
components required for disease agent survival in the environment, interactions with wildlife,
and the potential role that vectors play in anthrax transmission. First, ecological niche modeling
with the Genetic Algorithm for Rule-set Production (GARP) was used to predict the geographic
distribution of anthrax in the continental U.S. using case data from outbreaks between 1957 and
2005. These results were then used to produce the first quantitative, continental scale predictions
of anthrax in Mexico. At the meso-scale, the route of transmission in white-tailed deer is
unknown, despite a large number of outbreaks in wild deer in Texas in recent years (2001 –
2005). To determine the interactions between deer and potential anthrax sources, two pilot
studies were conducted on 1) the distribution of biting flies in relation to anthrax cases to
evaluate the potential role of hematophagous flies as vectors, and 2) the summer home ranges of
deer in relation to fly densities and carcass locations. The results of the GARP studies support
the use of the technique for modeling the niche of this disease and suggest a central corridor of
anthrax habitat from southwest Texas to the Canadian border, with disjunct areas in the Pacific
Northwest and California. Mexico’s predicted areas were extensions of the Texas and California
ranges. The deer study suggests that deer interactions with spores occur within a limited home
range in Texas and long-distance movement of spores is unlikely by individual deer. Biting fly
densities were highest in areas of known anthrax infection and lowest in areas where casepositive
deer have not been identified, suggesting that flies may play a role in disease
transmission, either through mechanical transmission or through increased nuisance that leads to
immuno-suppression in deer. This dissertation presents the first continental-scale predictions for
the geographic distribution of anthrax in the U.S. and Mexico. Additionally, this is the first
known study to evaluate spatial patterns between known cases, fly densities, and animal
movements.

Blackburn, J. K., K. M. McNyset, et al. (2007). "Modeling the geographic distribution of Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax disease, for the contiguous United States using predictive ecologic niche modeling." American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 77(6): 1103-1110.
	The ecology and distribution of Bacillus anthracis is poorly understood despite continued anthrax outbreaks in wildlife and livestock throughout the United States. Little work is available to define the potential environments that may lead to prolonged spore survival and subsequent outbreaks. This study used the genetic algorithm for rule-set prediction modeling system to model the ecological niche for B. anthracis in the contiguous United States using wildlife and livestock outbreaks and several environmental variables. The modeled niche is defined by a narrow range of normalized difference vegetation index, precipitation, and elevation, with the geographic distribution heavily concentrated in a narrow corridor from southwest Texas northward into the Dakotas and Minnesota. Because disease control programs rely on vaccination and carcass disposal, and vaccination in wildlife remains untenable, understanding the distribution of B. anthracis plays an important role in efforts to prevent/eradicate the disease. Likewise, these results potentially aid in differentiating endemic/natural outbreaks from industrial-contamination related outbreaks or bioterrorist attacks.

Blickle, R. L. (1955). "Observations on the habits of Tabanidae." Ohio Journal of Science 55(5): 308-310.
	
Blume, R. R., R. H. Roberts, et al. (1971). "Tests of aerosols of deet for protection of livestock from biting flies." Journal of Economic Entomology 64(5): 1193-1198.
	When six concentrations of deet (diethyltoluamide, 3.75-75%) were applied as aerosols to cattle and horses to determine their effect as reppellents for biting files, the protection was proportional to the concentration. Thus, cattle were protected from Stomoxys calcitrans for a maximum of 4 hours by 50 or 75% concentrations and from certain tabanids by a 75% concentration. Horses sprayed with the 75% concentration were protected from certain tabanids for as much as 3 hours. However, cattle sprayed with the higher concentrations salivated excessively and had a nasal discharge. Horses sprayed with the higher concentrations exhibited exfoliation on several body regions.

Boonchit, S., N. Sarataphan, et al. (1996). "Seasonal abundance of tabanid fly (Diptera: Tabanidae) at a key farm in Pathumthani Province, Thailand." Proceedings 34th Kasetsart University Conference Bangkok, pp. 441-445.
	
Böse, R., K. T. Friedhoff, et al. (1987). "Transmission of Megatrypanum trypanosomes to Cervus dama by Tabanidae." Journal of Protozoology 34(1): 110-113.
	Four fallow deer, Cervus dama, became infected with Trypanosoma (megatrypanum) sp. by oral application of triturated guts from tabanids collected in an area with deer but without any cattle; four control calves remained negative. Upon challenge with triturated guts from tabanids from an area with pastured cattle, the four calves became infected with Trypanosoma (M.) theileri. The prepatent period in deer was five days or less. Haematopota spp. and Tabanus spp. were identified as vectors of the deer trypanosomes. It is concluded that the trypanosomes of C. dama belong to a Megatrypanum species that is not identical with T. theileri.

Böse, R., K. T. Friedhoff, et al. (1987). "Transmission of Trypanosoma theileri to cattle by Tabanidae." Parasitology Research 73: 421-424.
	Tabanids were collected in an area in northern Germany, where pastured cattle were abundant. Trypanosomatidae were identified in 14% of tabanids examined. Twelve cattle became infected with Trypanosoma theileri after applying usually 2-5 infected tabanids, to the intact oral mucosa. Haematopota pluvialis, Haematopota italica, Hybomitra micans and Tabanus bromius were identified as vectors. Infective stages of Trypanosoma theileri were identified in the gut and in the faeces of tabanids by transmission experiments. The minimum prepatent period was less than 4 days. No apparent signs of disease were observed in the infected cattle.

Böse, R. and N. C. Heister (1993). "Development of Trypanosoma (M.) theileri in tabanids." Journal for Eukaryotic Microbiology 40: 788-792.
	
Boshko, G. V. (1973). "Diptera, Tabanidae." Fauna Ukraini 13(4): 208 pp.
	In the first half of this monograph on the Tabanid fauna of the Ukraine (Soviet Union), an introductory section on the morphology and development of Tabanids in general is followed by a comprehensive account of the ecology and distribution of these flies in the area. In the second half, notes on the morphology and ecology of 68 species and subspecies of Ukrainian Tabanids are given, together with keys to the genera and species mentioned.

Bosler, E. M. and E. J. Hansens (1974). "Natural feeding behavior of adult saltmarsh greenheads, and its relation to oogenesis." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 67(3): 321-324.
	Females of Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq. collected on a ditched tidal saltmarsh and adjacent upland at Leeds Point, New Jersey, were found to be autogenous during the first ovarian cycle. Fat-body from the larval stage was depleted with the maturation of the follicles during the first ovarian cycle. Following the initial oviposition, parous females entered ovarian diapause, and the second ovarian cycle was gonotrophically concordant. Feeding on both blood and nectar sugars by the females was noted. Blood was directed to the midgut and sugars to the crop [cf. RAE/B 58, 1554]. The females of this species feed primarily on large mammals but only parous females imbibe blood. Sugars are not directly responsible for follicular maturation.

Boussinesq, M. (2006). "Loiasis." Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 100(8): 715-731.
	Loiasis affects millions of individuals living in the forest and savannah regions of Central Africa. In some areas, this
disease constitutes one of the most common reasons for medical consultation. The burden posed by loiasis is
probably under-estimated and, in addition, individuals harbouring high Loa microfilarial loads are at risk of
developing serious neurological reactions after treatment with diethylcarbamazine or ivermectin. These events are
currently significantly hampering the development of the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control, and
operational research is required to address the issue. The results of recent studies, involving either human
populations from endemic areas or monkey models, have provided much more detail of the mechanisms associated
with amicrofilaraemic or so-called 'occult' loiasis. New diagnostic tools have also been developed in the last decade,
and various protocols are now available for the risk-free treatment of loiasis cases

Bouyer, J., M. Desquesnes, et al. (2004). Les Trypanosomoses Animales Africaines, Le piégeage des insectes vecteurs. Santé animale en Afrique de l’Ouest, Recommandations techniques. Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, Centre international de recherche développement sur l’élevage en zone subhumide et Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement 20: 12.
	
Bowden, J. (1976). "Weather and the phenology of some African Tabanidae." Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa 39(2): 207-245.
	Insect populations were monitored with the aid of light-traps at Ibadan, Western Nigeria, in 1966-68 and for 3 months in 1970 in central Sudan [see RAE/A 61, 4387]. In Nigeria, Tabanus guineensis Wied. was common in all 3 years and T. taeniola P. de B. fairly common at 1 place in 1 year. It is suggested that the most important single factor affecting their phenology at Ibadan was the incidence of rainfall of 10 mm or more in a single fall, which was related to captures of adult females of the 2 species about 28 and 31 days later, respectively. In T. taeniola, there was evidence for a shorter reaction period of 7-10 days also. These species seemed to require alternate wetting and drying of the soil to induce emergence of the adults.T. guineensis was most active (as measured by numbers taken in light-traps) at temperatures of 25-27 deg C, with little or no activity above 31 deg C, and at a saturation deficit of 6-8 mbar. This species was markedly crepuscular, first flight by females being closely defined by the time of the end of civil twilight at a light intensity of about 3.5 lux and crep value of +1.0; no effects of moonlight on catches could be shown. All females of T. guineensis, T. taeniola and several other species caught in light-traps were unfed, and fertilised but with undeveloped ovaries showing no signs of previous ovarian cycles, and it is concluded that they were young females dispersing. Females caught on cattle, including many examples of T. pluto Wlk., were in a similar condition except that the crops of some examples contained varying amounts of fresh blood. It is concluded that females biting cattle were also young examples taking their first blood-meal.In the Sudan, Atylotus agrestis (Wied.) and T. sufis Jaennicke were taken. More examples of both species were taken when the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone was near the trap than when it was some distance away [see loc. cit., A 63, 413]. A. agrestis became uncommon soon after the final southward movement of the Zone, and T. sufis disappeared altogether 3 days after the last record of southerly winds at the trap site. Trapped females of both the Sudan species included examples that varied from unfed immatures to blood-fed examples with mature eggs; there was some evidence that in both species there were autogenous females. It is shown that the ambient conditions in which African tabanids are active are similar to those reported for high-latitude species in Europe and North America.The survival strategy of T. guineensis and T. taeniola, with a static (diapause) stage awaiting the return of favourable conditions, is contrasted with the dynamic (migratory) strategy of A. agrestis and T. sufis. The implications for the epidemiology of diseases, of insects that may be cyclical vectors migrating in association with the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone is discussed, with special reference to trypanosomiasis in camels (which may be transmitted by migrant tabanids) and anthrax (which is transmitted by tabanids), and diseases carried by other Diptera, such as ceratopogonids.

Bowden, J. (1977). "Biological notes on some African Tabanidae (Diptera), with descriptions of two new species of Philoliche Wiedemann." Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa 40(2): 237-245.
	Observations are recorded on some tabanids in Nigeria, Kenya and Uganda since about 1958. It is suggested that adults of tree-hole breeding species of Chrysopsinae Rhinomyzini emerge after heavy falls of rain, and that the littoral species Adersia oestroides (Karsch) has an emergence rhythm related to tides. Feeding habits of some species of Philoliche are described. P. palustris sp.n. (which is described, was collected in Uganda in 1958), P. ruppellii (Jaennicke) and P. candidolimbatus (Aust.) are recorded biting man in Uganda.

Brach, E. J. and R. M. Trimble (1985). "Effect of adhesive on the spectral reflectance of insect traps." Canadian Entomologist 117: 1565-1568.
	
Bracken, G. K., W. Hanec, et al. (1962). "The orientation of horse flies and deer flies (Tabanidae: Diptera) II. The role of some visual factors in the attractiveness of decoy silhouettes." Canadian Journal of Zoology 40: 685-695.
	
Bracken, G. K. and A. J. Thorsteinson (1965). "The orientation behaviour of horse flies and deer flies (Tabanidae: Diptera) IV. The influence of some physical modifications of visual decoys on orientation of horse flies." Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 8: 314-318.
	
Braverman, Y., A. Chizov-Ginzburg, et al. (1995). "Tabanus arenivagus (Diptera: Tabanidae) attracted to ultraviolet light suction traps in Israel." Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 11: 489-490.
	Suction blacklight (ultraviolet) trappings have been conducted at Bet Dagan, Israel, since 1978. T. arenivagus has been caught only during 1992-94. Seventy-one specimens, all females, were caught by these traps, demonstrating that females are attracted to the wavelength range of 340-380 nm radiated by the mercury-vapour lamps of these traps. This constitutes a new finding among the tabanid species of the Mediterranean region.

Brennan, J. M. (1935). "The Pangoniinae of Nearctic America (Tabanidae, Diptera)." Kansas University Science Bulletin 36(8): 249-401.
	
Browne, S. M. and G. F. Bennett (1980). "Color and shape as mediators of host-seeking responses of simuliids and tabanids (Diptera) in the Tantramar marshes, New Brunswick, Canada." Journal of Medical Entomology 17: 58-62.
	Host-seeking responses of tabanids and simuliids to visual stimuli of colour and shape were investigated in the Tintamirre National Wildlife Area of New Brunswick, Canada, using 2-dimensional sticky silhouettes. Among the simuliids, Cnephia mutata (Mall.) oriented towards black, Prosimulium mixtum Syme & Davies to red and the complex of Simulium venustum Say and S. verecundum Stone & Jamnback to blue. Among tabanids, both Chrysops and Hybomitra spp. were attracted to blue or red silhouettes but never to yellow, black or white, and consistently chose the attractive colour portions of silhouettes striped with attractive and unattractive colours. Tabanids showed little preference between moving or stationary silhouettes. The shape of the silhouettes (square, triangle or disc) was of little importance either to simuliids or to tabanids.

Burg, J. G., D. G. Powell, et al. (1991). "Arthropod faunal composition on Kentucky equine premises." Journal of Medical Entomology 28(5): 658-662.
	A total of 39 arthropod species representing the families Muscidae, Chloropidae, Tabanidae, Simuliidae, Culicidae and Ixodidae was collected from Kentucky horse farms using dry ice-baited canopy traps, light traps, water samples, tick drags, and animal inspections during late April to mid-October 1987 and 1988. 33 species were collected from canopy traps, consisting of 74.3% muscids (Stomoxys calcitrans and Musca autumnalis), 16.7% chloropids (Hippelates spp.), 5.0% simuliids (Prosimulium magnum, Simulium venustum, S. vittatum and S. decorum), 3.8% tabanids (8 species of Chrysops, of which C. callidus was the most abundant, 2 of Hybomitra, of which H. lasiophthalma was the most abundant, and 11 of Tabanus, including T. quinquevittatus and T. sackeni), and 0.2% mosquitoes (5 species, including Aedes triseriatus and Psorophora columbiae). Light traps attracted 8 culicid species (including Culex restuans) and water samples yielded 3. One ixodid species (Dermacentor variabilis) was collected with drags, and animal inspections yielded 2 muscids (M. autumnalis and Haematobia irritans) and 2 ticks (D. variabilis and Ixodes cookei, the latter on a dog). Comparison of species assemblages among farms and across years using multivariate principal component analysis (PCA) yielded 3 distinct principal components, and PCA scores for each farm per year were correlated with biotic and abiotic environmental factors and management practices. The proximity to cattle herds was the best predictor of similarity in species assemblages among farms, reflecting the high percentage of muscid species collected. Poor management practices were partially responsible for proportionally larger populations of culicids, ixodids and muscids on some farms.

Burgdorfer, W. and S. F. Hayes (1990). "Vector-spirochete relationships in louse-borne and tick-borne borrelioses with emphasis on Lyme disease." Advances in Disease Vector Research 6: 127-150.
	Salient findings on the development and transmission of Borrelia burgdorferi in and through its Ixodes vectors are compared and contrasted with these aspects of B. recurrentis, B. duttonii and B. theileri (among other borreliae) in their respective louse (Pediculus humanus) and tick (Ornithodoros moubata, Rhipicephalus spp., Boophilus spp.) vectors. After a brief historical introduction, a table summarizes the characteristics and geographical distribution of all arthropod-borne borreliae. Three sections then follow on the behaviour of louse-borne and tick-borne spirochaetes, of B. theileri, and of B. burgdorferi in their vectors, then a section on the relationship of B. burgdorferi to non-specific tick vectors (notably Dermacentor variabilis, Amblyomma americanum, and ticks of the jack rabbit Lepus californicus californicus) and other haematophagous arthropods (Chrysops callidus, Aedes spp.), and finally a section identified "B. burgdorferi: subject to a complex development cycle? ". In conclusion, the main points and areas for further research in this fast-moving subject are highlighted, including the apparent relative unimportance of transovarial transmission for B. burgdorferi, the likelihood that Haemaphysalis leporipalustris and I. dentatis play a role in maintaining B. burgdorferi in lagomorph populations, the possibility of mechanical transmission by Chrysops, Tabanus and mosquitoes, and certain complexities of spirochaete development in their arthropod and vertebrate hosts.

Burger, J. (1996). "Yellowstone's insect vampires." Yellowstone Science 4(4): 13-19.
	
Burger, J. F. (1974). "The horse flies of Arizona. I. Introduction and zoogeography (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 76(2): 99-118.
	In this first part of a series [cf. next abstract], the zoogeography of the Tabanid fauna of the topographically very diverse state of Arizona is discussed. It consists of 43 known species in 11 genera and includes elements of three different groups. One group moved into the isolated mountain ranges and grasslands of south-eastern Arizona, from the Mexican Highlands and Central America, with some species penetrating the central and north-eastern parts of the State. A second group characteristic of the Rocky Mountains, entered Arizona mainly through western New Mexico. A third from the arid regions of north-western Mexico and south-eastern California penetrated the more arid parts of Arizona in the south and west. Many species in south-eastern Arizona are now isolated from their congeners in northern Mexico by semi-arid desert due to relatively recent climatic and associated vegetational changes in southern Arizona and northern Sonora, Mexico.

Burger, J. F. (1974). "The horse flies of Arizona. III. Notes on and keys to the adult Tabanidae of Arizona, subfamily Tabaninae, except Tabanus (Diptera)." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 76(4): 428-443.
	Keys and descriptions are provided for the adult Tabaninae, except Tabanus, in Arizona, together with notes on their distribution and adult activity. Arizona species of Stenotabanus, Bolbodimyia and Leucotabanus in the Diachlorini and Atylotus and Hybomitra in the Tabanini are discussed. H. opaca (Coq.) is reported from Arizona for the first time.

Burger, J. F. (1974). "Horse-flies of Arizona. II. Notes on and keys to the adult Tabanidae of Arizona, subfamilies Pangoniinae and Chrysopsinae (Diptera)." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 76(3): 247-269.
	This second paper of a series on the Tabanids of Arizona [cf. preceding abstract] is the first of three on the adults. In it, brief summaries are given of adult habits, natural enemies, economic importance and control. A key to the genera of Tabanidae in Arizona and keys to the species of Apatolestes, Esenbeckia, Silvius and Chrysops occurring in Arizona are given. Genera and species of Pangoniinae and Chrysopsinae in Arizona are briefly described, and there are notes on prevalence and spatial and seasonal distribution. Few species are of economic importance in Arizona because they are not usually abundant enough to cause annoyance. Livestock are attacked by Chrysops facialis Tns., C. fulvaster O.-S. and species of Hybomitra breeding in and round lakes and ponds. In the mountains of the south-east, Stenotabanus flavidus (Hine) and Tabanus erythraeus (Big.) are abundant enough to cause discomfort to horses. T. punctifer O.-S., T. subsimilis Bellardi and T. subsimilis nippontucki Philip may attack cattle and horses in desert areas but, unless extensive irrigation provides favourable breeding sites, are rarely abundant enough to be serious pests. The only species that annoy man significantly are C. facialis, which worries campers and fishermen in the mountains of the north and centre, and Silvius quadrivittatus (Say), which is occasionally a pest along larger, permanent streams in central areas. The only organism that Tabanids might transmit is Elaeophora schneideri, a parasite of elk, deer and sheep [cf. RAE/B 62, 826, etc.]. Chemical control of adults is not practicable. If species breeding in man-made foci are plentiful enough to warrant control, this can be effected by such measures as deepening ponds and cleaning and repairing ditches and lining them with concrete. Modification of natural breeding places is not generally justified.

Burger, J. F. (1974). "Undescribed horse flies from the southwestern United States and northern Mexico (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 76(1): 1-14.
	As a result of a study of the biology and taxonomy of immature Tabanids in Arizona in 1968-70, two previously undescribed species of Tabanus were reared, and these are described from adults of both sexes as T. caenosus sp. n. and T. mogollon sp. n. Their distribution in the south-western United States and northern Mexico and notes on larval habitats are given. The hitherto unknown male of T. boharti Philip is also described. These species all belong to the group of T. gilanus Tns. Keys for separating the adults of both sexes of some species of the group in the south-western United States are included.

Burger, J. F. (1975). "Horse flies of Arizona. IV. Notes on and keys to the adult Tabanidae of Arizona, subfamily Tabanidae, genus Tabanus (Diptera)." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 77(1): 15-33.
	In this fourth paper of a series on the Tabanids of Arizona, a key is given to the 16 species of Tabanus known to occur there, with short descriptions and notes on their distribution and seasonal adult activity. Most species are neither abundant nor widely distributed enough to be economically important, but a few including T. punctifer O.-S. and T. subsimilis Bellardi may be pests of livestock, and T. abditus Philip, T. eurycerus Philip and possibly T. gilanus Tns. are potential vectors of Elaeophora schneideri [cf. RAE/B 62, 826]. A pallid form of T. subsimilis, described as the subspecies T. s. nippontucki Philip, is reduced to varietal status because of lack of definitive evidence for subspecific differentiation.

Burger, J. F. (1977). "The biosystematics of immature Arizona Tabanidae (Diptera)." Transactions of the American Entomological Society 103: 145-258.
	
Burger, J. F. (1980). "Redescription and lectotype designation of Tabanus sulcifrons Macquart (Diptera, Tabanidae), and comparison to related taxa." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 82(4): 660-667.
	A lectotype for Tabanus sulcifrons Macq. is designated from 4 syntype females, and the species is redescribed. Lectotypes are also designated for 2 other species of the complex that are synonymised with T. sulcifrons. T. sulcifrons is compared with related species, including the late-season form known as the 'Carolina form', T. abdominalis F., T. gladiator Stone and T. nefarius Hine.

Burger, J. F. (1981). "A review of the horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) of Sri Lanka (Ceylon)." Entomologica Scandanavica 11: 81-123.
	
Burger, J. F. (1984). "Lectotype designation for Tabanus vicarius Walker and comments on Tabanus simulans Walker (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 86(1): 241-243.
	As a result of studying type material of species of Tabanus related to T. nigrovittatus Macq. and T. quinquevittatus Wied., a specimen synonymous with T. quinquevittatus is designated as a lectotype for T. vicarius Wlk., and the confused taxonomy of the very variable species T. simulans Wlk. is discussed and its distinction from T. nigrovittatus is provisionally confirmed.

Burger, J. F. (1985). "Notes on Tabanidae (Diptera) of the Oriental Region. I. A review of the Chrysops flavocinctus group and description of a new species from Sarawak." Myia 3: 219-236.
	Based on examination of C. flavocinctus and its relatives and morphological variation within and between species, 3 taxa are recognized in the flavocinctus group: C. dubiens from the Ghats of southern India and from Sri Lanka; C. flavocinctus, a montane species widespread in the Oriental Region, from India east to Vietnam and south to Malaysia and the mountains of Sabah in North Borneo; and a new species, C. philipi sp. nov., herein described, from lowland areas of Sarawak. C. alter remains unrecognized, but probably is related to C. flavocinctus. Analysis of morphological variation is given for all taxa treated here and a key to the adults is provided.

Burger, J. F. (1988). "A new genus and two new species of Pangoniini Diptera Tabanidae of zoogeographic interest from Sabah Malaysia." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 90(1): 12-19.
	Mesopangonius gen. nov. is described from Moun Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. This is the first representative of the Pangoniini known to occur in the Oriental Region. Although possibly derived from unspecialized Laurasian Pangoniini, its long slender proboscis is characteristic of specialized genera of the tribe. Two new species, M. philipi sp. nov. and M. brackleyae sp. nov. are described, and a key is provided.

Burger, J. F. (1988). "Notes on Tabanidae (Diptera) of the Oriental Region III. New and little-known Tabanidae from Borneo." Pan Pacific Entomologist 64(2): 159-172.
	Fourteen species of Tabanidae were examined in 3 small collections from Sabah, Malaysia (North Borneo) and south-eastern Borneo (Indonesia). Five new species, Haematopota quadrifenestrata sp. nov., Tabanus atratoides sp. nov., T. atropilosus sp. nov., T. samawangensis sp. nov. and T. transversus sp. nov., are described from Sabah, and one new species, T. atristylatus sp. nov., is described from south-eastern Borneo. Two species, T. brevicallus and T. stantoni are recorded from Sabah for the first time. Chrysops translucens, known from Sarawak and Brunei in northern Borneo, is here recorded from Sabah. Collection records are summarized, and observed variation in taxonomic characters is discussed.

Burger, J. F. (1991). "Review of the Tabanidae (Diptera) of eastern Melanesia and Samoa (excluding New Caledonia), with description of three new species." Pacific Science 45(4): 374-382.
	Three species of Tabanidae, Cydistomyia choiseulensis sp. nov. from Choiseul, the Solomon Islands, and Tabanus lamiensis sp. nov. and T. yoshimotoi sp. nov. from Viti Levu, Fiji, are described. New distribution records for C. chaineyi, C. teloides, Japenoides ratcliffei, T. ceylonicus, T. choiseulensis, T. gressitti and T. rubiventris are presented for the Solomon Islands. C. solomensis is reported from the Santa Cruz Islands for the first time. A list of Tabanidae from eastern Melanesia and Samoa (excluding New Caledonia) is given, as well as a key to genera and species.

Burger, J. F. (1992). "Notes on some Tabanidae (Diptera) from Madagascar, with descriptions of two new species of Aegophagamyia Austen, subgenus Triclida Enderlein." Annales de la Société Entomologique de France 28(3): 303-315.
	Sixteen species of Madagascan Tabanidae from 3 recent collections are dealt with. A. (T.) brunnipes sp. nov. and A. (T.) chaineyi sp. nov. are described (both from material collected in montane rainforest near Ranomafana). Chrysops insulensis is redescribed. The genus Picromyza is resurrected from synonymy with Chrysops to hold 4 species: P. infernalis, P. addita comb. nov., P. croceus comb. nov. and P. pauliani comb. nov. (the latter 3 being transferred from the woodi group of Chrysops). Supplemental descriptions are provided for C. aprugnus, C. madagascarensis, P. infernalis and Tabanus silvanus. A. longirostris is illustrated to aid identification, and distributional notes are provided for 8 other species represented in the collections examined: A. pungens, A. brunnea, A. chopardi, A. nebulosa, C. insulensis, Neavella verstraeteni, Tabanocella scirpea, Tabanus obscurestigmatus.

Burger, J. F. (1995). Catalog of Tabanidae (Diptera) in North America north of Mexico. Contributions on entomology international. Volume 1, Number 1. Gainesville, Florida, Associated Publishers.
	
Burger, J. F. (1995). "The Tabanidae (Diptera) of New Caledonia." Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 44: 1-50.
	The Tabanidae of New Caledonia, the Isle of Pines, and the Loyalty Islands are reviewed. Sixteen species in 4 genera are described as new: Chasmia brunnea n. sp., Ch. maculata n. sp., Ch. neocaledonica n. sp. Cydistomyia (C.) atrata n. sp., C. kraussi n. sp., C. longicornis n. sp., C. longipennis n. sp., C. longistyla n. sp., C. metallica n. sp., C. minuta n. sp., C. pinensis n. sp., C. quadrimaculata n. sp., Dasybasis evenhuisi n. sp., D. gracilipalpis n. sp., D. ponandouensis n. sp., and D. setipalpis n. sp. Males of 7 species, previously known only from females, are described for the first time. Criteria for generic distinction of taxa occurring on New Caledonia are reviewed and revised, and the genus Chasmiella, previously resurrected for 5 New Caledonian species, is synonymized with Chasmia. Three recently described species are placed in synonymy: Cydistomyia danutae = C. risbeci n. syn., Dasybasis lydiae = D. kuniae n. syn., and Cydistomyia norae = Dasybasis grenieri n. syn. New combinations are proposed for 7 species: Chasmiella bozennae = Chasmia bozennae n. comb., Chasmiella conradi = Chasmia conradi n. comb., Chasmiella leszeki = Chasmia leszeki n. comb., Chasmiella kuniae = Dasybasis kuniae n. comb., Chasmiella cohici = Chasmia cohici n. comb., Cydistomyia norae = Dasybasis norae n. comb., and Cydistomyia tiwakai = Dasybasis tiwakai n. comb. A brief summary of the geology and biogeography of New Caledonia is provided from existing literature, as well as comments on the distribution and possible dispersal patterns of Tabanidae. At present, 41 species of Tabanidae in 4 genera are known from New Caledonia, the Isle of Pines and the Loyalty Islands.

Burger, J. F. (1996). "Description of the male and variation in Bolbodimyia galindoi Fairchild (Diptera: Tabanidae), and a revised key to species of Bolbodimyia." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 98(3): 390-395.
	The male of Bolbodimyia galindoi Fairchild from Costa Rica is described for the first time and compared with the female. Variation in the color of B. galindoi throughout its known range from Costa Rica to Colombia is discussed. A revised key to the genus Bolbodimyia is provided.

Burger, J. F. (1996). "A new species of Ectenopsis (Paranopsis) (Diptera: Tabanidae) from New Zealand and a key to species of the subgenus Paranopsis." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 98(2): 264-266.
	Ectenopsis (Paranopsis) mackerrasi n. sp., from the North Island of New Zealand is described and illustrated. It is compared to Ectenopsis lutulensis (Hutton), the only other known species in this subgenus, and a key to the subgenus Paranopsis Mackerras is provided.

Burger, J. F. (1999). "Alexander Graham Bell ("Sandy") Fairchild: A biography." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 1-41.
	
Burger, J. F. (1999). "Notes on and description of new and little-known species of neotropical Tabanidae (Diptera)." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 51-74.
	
Burger, J. F. (2001). "A review of the Hybomitra sonomensis group (Diptera: Tabanidae) in western No. America, with emphasis on geographic variation in adult Hybomitra phaenops." Entomological News 112(1): 22-30.
	
Burger, J. F., E. M. Bermudez, et al. (1987). "Review of Tabanus species (Diptera: Tabanidae) with pilose and patterned eyes in Mexico and western North America, and descriptions of two new species from Mexico." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 80(1): 89-99.
	Those Tabanus species from Mexico and western North America with pilose eyes bearing a coloured pattern in life, and distinguished from species of Hybomitra , are reviewed. Two new species of Tabanus, T. selvaticus sp. n. from Hidalgo and T. sierrensis sp. n. from Durango, are described. One species, H. laticornis, is reassigned to Tabanus from Hybomitra, pending additional study. Other combinations and synonymies are made. Species treated in this study are placed into 4 groups based on shared external features of adults, and of larvae and pupae when known. A key to adult females is provided for the species discussed.

Burger, J. F. and J. E. Chainey (2000). "Revision of the Oriental and Australian species of Chrysops (Diptera; Tabanidae)." Invertebrate Taxonomy 14: 607-654.
	The genus Chrysops from the Australasian and Oriental regions is revised. Two new species are described: Chrysops fuscomarginalis, sp. nov. and C. srilankensis, sp. nov. The status of two species is revised: C. terminalis, stat. rev. is resurrected from questionable synonymy with C. dispar, and C. cinctus, stat rev. is resurrected from synonymy with C. signifer. Fifteen Chrysops names are placed in synonymy for the first time or placed as synonyms of species with which they were not previously associated: C. atrinus syn. of C. silvifacies, syn. nov.; C. australis papuensis syn. of C. australis, syn. nov.; C. flavocallus syn. of C. flavescens, syn. nov.; C. impar syn. of C. translucens, syn. nov.; C. indianus thailandensis syn. of C. indianus, syn. nov.; C. intercalatus syn. of C. pettigrewi, syn. nov.; C. paradesignatus syn. of C. designatus, syn. nov.; C. philipi syn. of C. alter, syn. nov.; C. semicirculus syn. of C. terminalis, syn. nov.; C. silvifacies yunnanensis syn. of C. silvifacies, syn. nov.; C. stekhoveni syn. of C. fixissimus, syn. nov.; C. subchusanensis syn. of C. chusanensis, syn. nov.; C. unizona syn. of C. fixissimus, syn. nov.; C. vietnamensis syn. of C. flaviscutellus, syn. nov.; and C. zhamensis syn. of C. pettigrewi, syn. nov. An alphabetical list of Chrysops names for the Oriental and Australasian regions is given, as is a key to species and descriptions and notes for all valid taxa. A brief discussion of the biology and economic importance is provided as well as a discussion of the distribution patterns of Oriental and Australasian Tabanidae and the northern and western limits of the Oriental region, based on distribution of Tabanidae.

Burger, J. F., D. J. Lake, et al. (1981). "The larval habitats and rearing of some common Chrysops species (Diptera: Tabanidae) in New Hampshire." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 83(3): 373-389.
	About 1230 larvae and pupae of 10 early-season Chrysops species were collected and reared for 3 years in New Hampshire, the species most commonly taken being C. mitis O. S., C. ater Macq. and C. indus O. S. The most consistently favourable collecting sites were natural or artificial ponds, and the least favourable were rocky-bottomed streams. Permanent ponds with exposed loamy soils just above the waterline consistently supported large numbers of common Chrysops spp. Factors affecting collecting and rearing success were found to include synchronisation of prepupal and pupal stages and adult emergence, yearly variation in pupation and emergence time, amount and quality of lacustrine substrate for pupation, seasonal succession of species-cohorts or populations of different species in the same habitat, and abundance of a pteromalid parasite, Diglochis occidentalis (Ashm.), in the pupae. Yearly variation in the amount of favourable pupation substrate was the factor most directly affecting collecting success in any particular habitat, while parasitism by D. occidentalis most directly affected rearing success in the laboratory. The types of larval habitat for the 55 species of Chrysops known in North America are briefly discussed, and the species are listed under the 3 main habitat types: lentic, lotic and lentic-lotic.

Burger, J. F., L. A. Martinez, et al. (1990). "A revision of the horse fly genus Agkistrocerus Philip (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Pan-Pacific Entomologist 66(3): 181-194.
	The horse fly genus Agkistrocerus Philip is revised. Tabanus aurantiacus Bellardi from Mexico is transferred to Agkistrocerus, based on features of the head, body and wings. The female of aurantiacus is redescribed, the male is described for the first time, and the immature stages are described and figured, the first for the genus. The male of A. finitimus (Stone) is described for the first time. Notes on the species included are provided, as are illustrations of principal taxonomic features. A revised key to the genera of Nearctic Tabanini also is presented.

Burger, J. F. and L. L. Pechuman (1986). "A review of the genus Haematopota (Diptera: Tabanidae) in North America." Journal of Medical Entomology 23: 345-352.
	The 5 known North American species of the genus Haematopota are reviewed. New information on the distribution and biology of H. americana, H. champlaini, H. punctulata, H. rara and H. willistoni is given. A key to the 5 species, illustrations of important taxonomic characters and maps of their distribution in the USA and Canada are provided.

Burger, J. F., R. K. Sofield, et al. (1985). "Status of some names associated with the salt marsh greenhead fly, Tabanus nigrovittatus Macquart (Diptera: Tabanidae) in eastern coastal North America and lectotype designation for T. conterminus Walker." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 78(1): 12-13.
	Recent studies have shown that Tabanus nigrovittatus consists of a complex of at least 2 distinct species. Stepwise discriminant analysis of 4 morphological characters of type specimens of T. simulans and T. conterminus showed that T. conterminus was the 2nd species in the complex in north-eastern salt marshes in North America. T. simulans is conspecific with T. nigrovittatus.

Burger, J. F. and F. C. Thompson (1981). "The Tabanus striatus complex (Diptera: Tabanidae): a revision of some oriental horse fly vectors of surra." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 83(2): 339-358.
	Revision of the species Tabanus striatus F., which has been incriminated as a vector of surra of horses in oriental regions, showed that 3 species have been confused under that name: the true T. striatus from Pakistan through India and Sri Lanka to China; T. partitus Wlk. in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Micronesia; and T. triceps Thnb. from Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan. Illustrations and a key to these 3 species are given, with a review of the literature and notes on taxonomic morphology.

Burnett, A. M., C. V. Covell, Jr., et al. (1978). "The horse flies and deer flies of Kentucky: new state records and a revised annotated checklist (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Entomological News 89(7-8): 197-200.
	Collecting data are given for 54 species of tabanids from Kentucky, including 13 new state records.

Burnett, A. M., C. V. Covell, Jr., et al. (1981). "Records of Kentucky Tabanidae (Diptera) including species new to the state fauna." Entomological News 92(2): 56-58.
	An addendum is presented to a revised annotated checklist of 54 species of Tabanidae from Kentucky published by the authors in 1978. The new information includes collection data for 28 species; there are 6 new state records.

Burnett, A. M. and K. L. Hays (1974). "Some influences of meteorological factors on flight activity of female horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Environmental Entomology 3: 515-521.
	Females of species of Tabanus were collected hourly in modified Malaise traps baited with solid carbon dioxide in Alabama in 1970 and 1971. Regression analyses of the numbers of flies collected and the values of various meteorological factors in the ranges observed indicated which factors influenced activity. In order of decreasing influence, these factors were: barometric pressure, temperature, evaporation and evaporation change per hour, total sky radiation change per hour, total sky radiation and wind velocity change per hour, and relative humidity and temperature change per hour. The influence of these factors on activity of the six most abundant species was also determined. Prediction equations are presented and the traps described.

Bursell, E. (1975). "Substrates of oxidative metabolism in Dipteran flight muscle." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B 52(2): 235-238.
	A comparison was made of the capacity of mitochondria from the flight muscle of several species of Diptera to oxidise pyruvate, alpha -glycerophosphate and proline. The species studied fall into three main groups distinguished on the basis of their ability to oxidise pyruvate or proline, or both, at rates commensurate with the requirements of flight metabolism. One group comprises species which do not feed on blood (Musca domestica L. and Sarcophaga nodosa Engel), or of which only the female is bloodsucking (species of Tabanus, Haematopota and Philoliche), and in this group only pyruvate is oxidised at the requisite rate. A second group includes species of which both sexes are facultative bloodsuckers (Haematobia sp. and Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) and this group both substrates support high rates of oxidisation. The third group is constituted by two species of Glossina, in which both sexes are obligatory bloodsuckers, and in these proline constitutes the only effective substrate for flight metabolism. The results are consistent with the view that the capacity to oxidise proline by different species of Diptera may be seen as a metabolic adaptation to the bloodsucking mode of life.

Burton, J. J. S. (1975). "The deer flies of Indiana (Diptera, Tabanidae: Chrysops)." Great Lakes Entomologist 8(1): 1-29.
	More than 13 000 Tabanids of the genus Chrysops were collected in many parts of Indiana, mostly in 1963. Notes are given on the morphology, abundance, seasonal prevalence and sometimes environmental preference of the 24 species represented. Similar data are included for 4 species that are as yet unknown in Indiana but may eventually be found to occur there. The known distribution in Indiana of the 24 species is shown on maps, and seasonal distribution is illustrated. A key is given to the females of the 28 species dealt with.

Burton, J. J. S. (1978). Tabanini of Thailand above Isthmus of Kra (Diptera: Tabanidae). Los Angeles, Entomological Reprint Specialists, 165 pp.
	This monograph on the Tabanini of part of Thailand is based upon the author's field observations and collections and a study of museum specimens from various sources. It includes a discussion on the economic importance of Indochinese Tabanidae, in which it is reported that although tabanids attack and annoy man, they prefer livestock, and their principal economic importance is the direct effect of their biting activity on livestock; this has never been quantified in the Oriental Region. The great increase in biting activity during the last hour before darkness in Thailand suggests that the problem might be reduced by sheltering stock during that hour. Biting activity is described in the accounts of the morphology, taxonomy, distribution and biology of some of the many species (mainly in Tabanus) recognised, 31 of them newly described. A key to the species is provided, based on characters in the adult females. Among a considerable number of taxonomic changes proposed, the most important is the transfer of T. macer (Big.) to T. dorsilinea Wied.

Burton, J. J. S., R. W. Meyer, et al. (1975). "New locality records in the genus Chrysops (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Indiana." Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science 85: 271-273.
	Additions are made to the list of distribution records of species of Chrysops collected in Indiana that was compiled in 1975 by J. J. S. Burton [see RAE/B 64, 559]. In the present paper, additional collection records (giving the county, collection date, number of females, specific site and the names of any other large biting flies captured with the Chrysops species) are given for 13 species and 1 variety of Chrysops, and 35 new county records are included.

Butt, C., B. Hicks, et al. (2008). "The diversity and abundance of Tabanidae in black spruce forests and sphagnum bogs in Gros Morne National park, Newfoundland, Canada." Journal of the Acadian Entomological Society 4: 7-13.
	Flies of the family Tabanidae are common, widespread pests, known to take blood meals from many mammals including humans, and are known vectors of a number of diseases. This study looks at diversity of tabanids within Gros Morne National Park (GMNP), Newfoundland & Labrador, Canada. Collections were made using six Malaise traps at three different locations within GMNP from June to August 2006. These locations represent various habitat types frequented by ungulates such as moose and caribou that are found throughout the park. Four hundred and eighty tabanids encompassing fourteen different species were collected in a 9-week period. Comparisons between this study and a similar study conducted in central Newfoundland found that the GMNP study showed higher species diversity (Shannon-Weiner H = 1.6298 vs. H = 1.5277), and had a higher than expected yield of species collected (14 vs. 12) based on rarefaction analyses.

Cameron, A. E. (1926). "Bionomics of the Tabanidae (Diptera) of the Canadian Prairie." Bulletin of Entomological Research 17: 1-42.
	
Cameron, S. L., C. L. Lambkin, et al. (2007). "A mitochondrial genome phylogeny of Diptera: whole genome sequence data accurately resolve relationships over broad timescales with high precision." Systematic Entomology 32(1): 40-59.
	Abstract. Mitochondrial genomes provide a promising new tool for understanding deep-level insect phylogenetics, but have yet to be evaluated for their ability to resolve intraordinal relationships. We tested the utility of mitochondrial genome data for the resolution of relationships within Diptera, the insect order for which the most data are available. We sequenced an additional three genomes, from a syrphid, nemestrinid and tabanid, representing three additional dipteran clades, 'aschiza', non-heteroneuran muscomorpha and 'basal brachyceran', respectively. We assessed the influence of optimality criteria, gene inclusion/exclusion, data recoding and partitioning strategies on topology and nodal support within Diptera. Our consensus phylogeny of Diptera was largely consistent with previous phylogenetic hypotheses of the order, except that we did not recover a monophyletic Muscomorpha (Nesmestrinidae grouped with Tabanidae) or Acalyptratae (Drosophilidae grouped with Calliphoridae). The results were very robust to optimality criteria, as parsimony, likelihood and Bayesian approaches yielded very similar topologies, although nodal support varied. The addition of ribosomal and transfer RNA genes to the protein coding genes traditionally used in mitochondrial genome phylogenies improved the resolution and support, contrary to previous suggestions that these genes would evolve too quickly or prove too difficult to align to provide phylogenetic signal at deep nodes. Strategies to recode data, aimed at reducing homoplasy, resulted in a decrease in tree resolution and branch support. Bayesian analyses were highly sensitive to partitioning strategy: biologically realistic partitions into codon groups produced the best results. The implications of this study for dipteran systematics and the effective approaches to using mitochondrial genome data are discussed. Mitochondrial genomes resolve intraordinal relationships within Diptera accurately over very wide time ranges (1-200 million years ago) and genetic distances, suggesting that this may be an excellent data source for deep-level studies within other, less studied, insect orders.

Campbell, B. C. and R. F. Denno (1978). "The structure of the aquatic insect community associated with intertidal pools on a New Jersey salt marsh." Ecological Entomology 3(3): 181-187.
	Landlocked intertidal pools (potholes) are one of the common aquatic habitats associated with eastern North American salt-marshes. Twenty species of insects (including Culicoides spp. and larvae of Chrysops spp. and Tabanus spp. and Aedes sollicitans (Wlk.)), of which only 8 were common, occurred in the pothole habitat in New Jersey. The harshness of the physical environment incurred in the pothole habitat is largely responsible for this depauperate insect community. Spatial variation in the diversity of the insect community is best explained by differential densities of predaceous fish. Seasonal changes in insect community diversity are attributable to fluctuations in water temperature and accompanying levels of dissolved oxygen.

Cardé, R. T. and M. A. Willis (2008). "Navigational strategies used by insects to find distant, wind-borne sources of odor." Journal of Chemical Ecology 34(7): 854-866.
	Insects locate many resources important to survival by tracking along wind-borne odor plumes to their source. It is well known that plumes are patchy distributions of high concentration packets of odor interspersed with clean air, not smooth Gaussian distributions of odor intensity. This realization has been crucial to our understanding of plume-tracking behavior, because insect locomotory movements and sensory processing typically take place in the range of tens to hundreds of milliseconds, permitting them to respond to the rapid changes in odor concentration they experience in plumes. Because odor plumes are not comprised of smooth concentration gradients, they cannot provide the directional information necessary to allow plume-tracking insects to steer toward the source. Many experiments have shown that, in the species examined, successful source location requires two sensory inputs: the presence of the attractive odor and the detection of the direction of the wind bearing that odor. All plume-tracking insects use the wind direction as the primary directional cue that enables them to steer their movements toward the odor source. Experimental manipulations of the presence and absence of the odor, and the presence, absence, or direction of the wind during plume tracking, have begun to resolve the relationship between these two sensory inputs and how they shape the maneuvers we observe. Experiments, especially those undertaken in the natural wind and odor environments of the organisms in question and those directed at understanding the neural processing that underlie plume tracking, promise to enhance our understanding of this remarkable behavior.

Carlton, C. E. and J. L. Lancaster (1995). "Horse and deer flies of Arkansas (Insecta: Diptera: Tabanidae)." Bulletin  Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station 948: 1-27.
	Ten genera and 80 species of Tabanidae are known from or are likely to occur in Arkansas, USA. After an introduction discussing faunal studies in Arkansas, the physical setting in that state, and distribution of collection records, this publication gives keys to the genera and to the females of the species of Chrysops, Hybomitra and Tabanus.

Carreno, R. A. and J. R. Barta (1998). "Small subunit ribosomal RNA genes of tabanids and hippoboscids (Diptera: Brachycera): Evolutionary relationships and comparison with other Diptera." Journal of Medical Entomology 35: 1002-1006.
	The small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) genes of hippoboscid (Ornithoica vicina Walker) and tabanid (Chrysops niger Macquart) Diptera were sequenced to determine their phylogenetic position within the order and to determine whether or not extensive hypervariable regions in this gene are widespread in the Diptera. A parsimony analysis of an alignment containing 8 dipteran sequences produced a single most parsimonious tree that placed O. vicina as sister group to Drosophila melanogaster Meigen. The tabanid Chrysops niger was sister group to the asilomorphan taxa, and the sister group to the Brachycera was a Tipula sp. although this relationship was not supported by bootstrap analysis. The hippoboscid and tabanid sequences contain extensive hypervariable regions in the V2, V4, V6, and V7 regions as do other Diptera. When these regions of the alignment were excluded from the phylogenetic analysis, a single most parsimonious tree was found. This tree had an identical overall topology to the tree obtained from the total data set. The hypervariable regions in parts of the dipteran SSU rRNA genes were more extensive in the nematocerous dipteran sequences used in this study than in the other dipteran representatives; these hypervariable regions may be of more utility in inferring relationship among species and subspecies than at the suprageneric level.

Catts, E. P. (1970). "A canopy trap for collecting Tabanidae." Mosquito News 30: 472-474.
	
Catts, E. P. and W. Olkowski (1972). "Biology of Tabanidae (Diptera): mating and feeding behavior of Chrysops fuliginosus." Environmental Entomology 1: 448-453.
	Mating and feeding behaviour of Chrysops fuliginosus Wied. was studied over 5 seasons on a salt marsh in Delaware. Mating behaviour was governed by air temperature. In the early morning, males were active before females and began pursuit flights from their resting places, where they were waiting in a head-up position, at 18-19 deg C. Initiation of mating occurred at 19-20 deg C. The time of termination of mating was related to the rate of warming of the environment; rapid warming gave a shorter duration of mating. Hunting and biting by females began at 24-25 deg C.

Caubère, P. and F. Noireau (1991). "Effect of attraction factors on the sampling of Chrysops silacea and C. dimidiata (Diptera: Tabanidae), vectors of Loa loa (Filaroidea: Onchocercidae) filariasis." Journal of Medical Entomology 28: 263-265.
	The effects of fire and human host density on Chrysops silacea and C. dimidiata abundance and age structure was evaluated at sites of Loa loa filariasis transmission in the Congo rain forest. Fire increased the catch of C. silacea 8.5-fold at ground level and 5-fold in the canopy, but did not modify the catch size of C. dimidiata. Catch size increased 2-fold when a pygmy camp located near the collecting station was inhabited. The presence of fire did not alter the parity and Loa loa infection rates in the population.

Caubère, P., F. Noireau, et al. (1990). "Mise en évidence de trypanosomes de reptiles chez Chrysops silacea et C. dimidiata (Diptera: Tabanidae) au sud-Congo." Annales de Parasitologie humaine et compareé 65(3): 149.
	Chrysops spp. were collected from forests in Komono District, Congo, in April 1989. Two of 698 C. silacea (0.3%) and 5 of 114 C. dimidiata (4.4%) had trypanosome epimastigotes in their mid- and/or hind guts. The epimastigotes were morphologically identical to Trypanosoma grayi (a parasite of crocodiles) or to T. grayi-like organisms that have been described from monitor lizards (Varanus spp.). The absence of metacyclic forms of the trypanosomes suggests that Chrysops spp. do not act as vectors of these parasites.

Chagnon, G. and A. Fournier (1943). "Les Tabanides du Québec." Naturaliste Canadien 70: 49-84.
	
Chainey, J. and R. A. Cheke (1994). "A collection of Tabanidae (Diptera) from Togo with two new synonyms in Haematopota." Journal of African Zoology 108(3): 225-229.
	A collection of Tabanidae from Togo is described and previous records of Tabanidae from Togo are summarized. Two new synonyms are proposed: Haematopota occidentalis Oldroyd, 1952 = H. gracilis Austen, 1908: H. linaresae Leclercq & Maldes, 1989 = H. tenuicrus Austen, 1908.

Chainey, J. E. (1983). "Afrotropical Tabanidae (Diptera): the genus Philoliche Wiedemann, subgenus Ommatiosteres Enderlein." Annals of the Natal Museum 25(2): 453-474.
	The subgenus Ommatiosteres of the tabanid genus Philoliche in the Afrotropical Region is revised and keyed, 6 new species being described.

Chainey, J. E. (1987). "Afrotropical Tabanidae (Diptera): the genus Rhigioglossa Wiedemann, 1828 (including Mesomyia Macquart, 1850, as a subgenus)." Annals of the Natal Museum 28: 137-159.
	
Chainey, J. E. (1988). "A review of the genus Lilaea Walker (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Invertebrate Taxonomy 2(6): 749-753.
	The Australasian and Oriental genus Lilaea is reviewed and now includes the following subgenera: Alilaea subgen. nov.; Cyanolilaea subgen. nov.; Eucompsa; Lilaea s.s.; and Pareucompsa. A key to the subgenera is provided. Lilaea (Cyanolilaea) ismayi sp. nov. (from Papua New Guinea) is described. Lilaea aureocincta comb. nov. (= E. aureocincta) and L. tecticallosa comb. nov. (= E. tecticallosa) are new combinations.

Chainey, J. E., M. J. Hall, et al. (1999). "Stenotabanus Lutz (Diptera: Tabanidae): An identification guide to the South American species." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 75-134.
	
Chainey, J. E. and M. J. R. Hall (1996). "A new genus and three new species of Pangoniini (Diptera: Tabanidae) from Bolivia." Memorias Do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 91: 307-312.
	The genus Boliviamyia gen. nov. and it's type species fairchildi sp. nov. are described. Two new species of Esenbeckia (Esenbeckia), griseipleura sp. nov. and gracilipalpis sp. nov. are described. Esenbeckia (Esenbeckia) planaltina Fairchild is recorded from Bolivia.

Chainey, J. E., M. J. R. Hall, et al. (1994). "A preliminary checklist and key to the genera and subgenera of Tabanidae (Diptera) of Bolivia with particular reference to Santa Cruz Department." Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 89(3): 321-345.
	A list is given of the 30 genera and 142 species of Tabanidae known from Bolivia (excluding 2 genera and 25 species for which records are doubtful), with locality and distributional data. An identification key is provided to the genera and subgenera and certain distinctive species of Bolivian Tabanidae. The tabanid fauna of large areas of Bolivia remains unknown and future additions to the species list are expected.

Chainey, J. E. and H. Oldroyd (1980). Family Tabanidae. Catalogue of the Diptera of the Afrotropical region, London, British Museum (Natural History).
	
Chan, B. T. E., S. Vellayan, et al. (2004). "A preliminary report on trypanosome infection of Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) in Malaysia." Tropical Biomedicine In Press - December.
	
Chapman, R. F. (1960). "Some observations on Tabanidae (Diptera) in the Rukwa Valley, Tanganyika Territory." Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society London (A) 35: 79-84.
	
Cheke, R. A., J. Mas, et al. (2003). "Potential vectors of loiasis and other tabanids on the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea." Medical and Veterinary Entomology 17: 221-223.
	The biting flies Chrysops dimidiatus Wulp and C. silaceus Austen (Diptera: Tabanidae), vectors of Loa loa (Cobbold) (Nematoda: Onchocercidae) on the African mainland, were found to be widespread on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) during 1996-2001. These tabanids were particularly prevalent in the southern part of Bioko, indicating potential transmission of loiasis on the island. The only other tabanids previously recorded on Bioko, Tabanus argenteus Surcouf (from 1915) and Haematopota near heptagramma Speiser (from 1933), were also collected. The possibility of loiasis being endemic on Bioko contra-indicates ivermectin treatment of onchocerciasis cases, due to risks of adverse side-effects.

Cherenet, T., R. A. Sani, et al. (2004). "Seasonal prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in a tsetse-infested zone and a tsetse-free zone of the Amhara region, north-west Ethiopia." Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 71: 307-312.
	
Chippaux, J. P., B. Bouchite, et al. (1998). "Impact of repeated large scale ivermectin treatments on the transmission of Loa loa." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 92(4): 454-458.
	The impact of large-scale treatment with ivermectin on the transmission of Loa loa was studied in a forest village in south Cameroon where loiasis was highly endemic (prevalence of 30%). After one year of parasitological and entomological surveillance without treatment, all consenting residents (788 at the beginning of the study) aged >5 years received ivermectin (200 µg/kg) every 3 months for 2 years (April 1993-95). Parasitological and entomological surveillance continued for 18 months after the end of treatment. The prevalence of loiasis was reduced to <10% and the mean microfilaraemia decreased by 90% over 2 years. The prevalence and average intensity of infection remained stable during the 18 months after treatment ended. Two vector species were identified, Chrysops dimidiata (representing approximately 90% of the fly population) and C. silacea. Compared to the pre-treatment values, the infection rate (all stages of L. loa) in Chrysops decreased by 75% and the infective rate (percentage of Chrysops harbouring 3rd-stage larvae of L. loa in the head) decreased by 85% in C. dimidiata and became zero in C. silacea following treatment. After the end of treatment, the infection and infective rates increased gradually. Although large-scale treatment seems an efficient method for the control of L. loa, the high risk of adverse effects when using the current microfilaricidal drugs renders such a strategy unacceptable.

Chippaux, J. P., B. Bouchité, et al. (2000). "Density and dispersal of the loaiasis vector Chrysops dimidiata in southern Cameroon." Medical and Veterinary Entomology 14: 339-344.
	
Churman, M. E. (1994). "Blue shadows - physical, physiological, and psychological causes." Applied Optics 32: 4719-4722.
	
Chvála, M. (1988). Family Tabanidae. Catalogue of Palearctic Diptera, Athericidae - Asilidae. Volume 5, Amsterdam, Elsevier.
	
Chvála, M. and L. Lyneborg (1970). "A revision of Palaearctic Tabanidae (Diptera) described by J. C. Fabricius." Journal of Medical Entomology 7(5): 543-555.
	
Chvála, M. and L. Lyneborg (1970). "Tabanidae (Diptera) from the Philippines, collected by the Noona Dan expedition 1961." Journal of Medical Entomology 7(3): 362-366.
	
Chvála, M., L. Lyneborg, et al. (1972). The horse flies of Europe (Diptera: Tabanidae). Copenhagen, Entomological Society of Copenhagen.
	Three authors expert in different regions have together produced a book which is unique in covering the distribution of the Tabanidae over a wide area, from Portugal to the U.S.S.R. It will be of great value as a handbook for field and laboratory taxonomy, bringing together information published in widely separated regions, and summarizing the many changes in nomenclature which have recently been introduced. This volume will be in great demand from veterinary and medical entomologists. It is a pity that at the price ( pounds-sterling 9) an attempt was made to include so many general chapters (e.g. on collecting techniques) at the expense of sufficient detail in other sections; the chapter 'Medical and economic importance of Tabanidae' is only a summarized list of diseases with no reference to sources to enable the student to follow further the interesting cases mentioned. Again, after the detailed descriptions of each species the notes of distribution records do not carry references; this is offset a little by the brief chapter giving recent key works for each country included, by which a number of the original records could be traced. Illustrations are vital to a work of this kind, and the line drawings of each species are conscientiously drawn, although all the illustrations are entirely without a scale indication, and one would expect more colour plates in a work dealing with this readily recognized group. Perhaps this deficiency, and various grammatical shortcomings can be corrected in later versions, which deserve a larger format than 500 pages to make maximum use of the valuable assimilation of information which has contributed to this reference book.

Cilek, J. (2000). "Evaluation of "Tred-Notä Deerfly Patches" against host-seeking deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in North Florida." Florida Entomologist 83(4): 476-479.
	“TRED-NOT DEERFLY PATCHES” (6.4 x 14.2 cm adhesive strips) affixed to the back and front of nylon mesh solid black and solid white “baseball” caps were evaluated for their ability to trap host-seeking Chrysops celatus Pechuman, C. vittatus Wiedemann, and Diachlorus ferrugatus (F.). Trials were conducted in a commercial pine bottomland forest habitat in northwestern Florida during peak seasonal abundance of these species. No D. ferrugatus were captured on patches but approximately 26% of host seeking Chrysops (regardless of patch location, cap color or fly species) were captured compared with a standard aerial sweep net method. Significantly more deer flies were captured on patches affixed to the back of the cap compared with patches placed on the front. No statistical difference (>0.05) existed in number of flies trapped on patches when cap colors (white versus black) were compared.

Cilek, J. E., W. Ansell, et al. (1994). "Seasonal abundance of Diachlorus ferrugatus (Diptera: Tabanidae) in north Florida." Journal of the Florida Mosquito Control Association 65: 45-48.
	Diachlorus ferrugatus is a tabanid that readily attacks man in north Florida, USA. CDC miniature light traps baited with dry ice (carbon dioxide) were used to collect D. ferrugatus adults in Bay County during 1992 and 1993 and Flagler County during 1993. Peak abundance of this species occurred from 25 May to 8 June in Bay County for 1992 and for 1993 from 4 to 18 June. In Flagler County, the peak populations of D. ferrugatus occurred from 4 to 18 June.

Cilek, J. E. and G. Medrano (2000). "Public perception of a trap to locally reduce yellow fly (Diptera: Tabanidae) nuisance in residential areas of northeastern Florida." Florida Entomologist 83: 26-30.
	
Cilek, J. E. and M. A. Olson (2008). "Effects of carbon dioxide, an octenol/phenol mixture, and their combination on Tabanidae (Diptera) collections from French 2-tier box traps." Journal of Medical Entomology 45: 638-642.
	The French 2-tier box trap was evaluated in northwestern Florida to determine its attractiveness to host-seeking tabanids (Diptera) when baited with either CO2 alone; a 4:1:8 mixture of octenol, 3-n-propylphenol, and 4-methylphenol; or a combination of CO2 plus 4:1:8 mixture. Six genera representing 43 species were obtained from this trap. Chrysops and Tabanus made up 10.3 and 87.4% of the total, respectively, with Chrysops celatus Pechuman and Tabanus pallidescens Philip as the predominate species from these two genera. CO2 alone and in combination with the octenol/phenol mixture enhanced overall tabanid collections three- to four-fold compared with no odor. Generally, more species were collected in the top tier of the French 2-tier trap regardless of treatment. Those species that showed a significant difference between top and bottom tiers in traps without odors continued this trend when traps were baited with the semiochemicals. However, Tabanus mixis Philip showed no tier preference in traps baited by CO2 alone, whereas Tabanus lineola F. showed no stratification difference with or without odors.

Cilek, J. E. and E. T. Schreiber (1996). "Diel host-seeking activity of Chrysops celatus (Diptera: Tabanidae) in northwest Florida." Florida Entomologist 79(4): 520-525.
	Diel host-seeking activity of adult C. celatus was studied in northwestern Florida, USA, during June 1993 and 1994. A total of 521 females was collected using aerial insect net sampling over human bait. Primary peak activity occurred at 06.45 h (Central Standard Time) with a secondary peak at 19.45 h. Host-seeking behaviour was correlated with relative humidity but not temperature and light intensity. No host-seeking activity was observed at darkness. In all studies, the majority of flies initially marked and released were not recaptured in the area. Anthrone assays from C. celatus collected adjacent to the immediate study area revealed that >96% had fed on fructose, while parity assays indicated about 92% of host-seeking adults were nulliparous.

Clark, G. C. and C. P. Hibler (1973). "Horse flies and Elaeophora schneideri in the Gila National Forest, New Mexico." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 9: 21-25.
	During June and July in 1970 and 1971, 3697 Tabanids belonging to seven species were dissected and examined for larvae of Elaeophora schneideri [cf. RAE/B 61, 2188], a filarial parasite causing blindness in North American elk (Cervus canadensis) and moose (Alces alces), in the Gila National Forest, New Mexico. Nearly 90% of the infected flies were Hybomitra laticornis (Hine). Almost 13 300 filarial larvae were recovered, with an average of 25 larvae/infected fly. Infective larvae were found in four species of Tabanids. Based on its occurrence in collections, the prevalence of infection and larval recovery, H. laticornis is considered to be the most important Tabanid vector of this filarial parasite in south-western New Mexico. H. tetrica rubrilata (Philip) and Tabanus eurycerus Philip may be important vectors in other areas.

Clark, G. G. (1972). "The role of horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in the transmission of Elaeophora schneideri Wehr and Dikmans, 1935, in the Gila National Forest, New Mexico." Dissertation Abstracts International 33B: 2639-2640.
	
Clark, G. G. and C. P. Hibler (1973). "Horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in the Gila National Forest, New Mexico." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 66(2): 465-468.
	During June and July in 1970 and 1971, 15 223 Tabanids representing 7 species were collected in the Gila National Forest, New Mexico. Of these, 90% were Hybomitra laticornis (Hine). This species was found at all sites where Tabanids were collected. The geographical, seasonal distribution and altitudinal range of all species is reported.

Clark, G. G., C. P. Hibler, et al. (1976). "Hematophagous activities of Hybomitra laticornis and H. tetrica rubrilata (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 13(3): 375-377.
	After a review of the literature on the quantity of blood taken and rapidity of ingestion by tabanids, an account is given of observations on the feeding behaviour of Hybomitra laticornis (Hine) and H. tetrica rubrilata (Philip) that were undertaken in New Mexico as part of a study on tabanid transmission of a filarial parasite, Elaeophora schneideri. It was found that a female of H. laticornis required about 20 s to become fully engorged, from the time that it landed on the host and began to probe with its mouthparts for a suitable feeding site. Flies fed to engorgement unless forcibly disturbed, in which case they circled round the host and resumed feeding after a short time. Engorged flies that were not captured glided to a tree and apparently experienced difficulty in flying.On the mule and the horse that were mostly used as hosts, most flies were collected from the ventral part of the neck, in front of the shoulder, on the inner side of the hind legs, and from the ventral side of the thorax and abdomen, and these flies engorged more rapidly than those feeding on other parts. In observations on tame mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), feeding occurred mostly on the bridge of the nose. The amounts of blood taken were 0.08-0.18 ml by H. laticornis and 0.1-0.2 ml by H. t. rubrilata, a larger insect. It was calculated that the potential rate of blood loss would be 0.5 litre in 8 h, although in natural conditions with a freely mobile host the actual rate would probably be much less. Calculations on the rate of blood digestion led to the conclusion that these tabanids fed every 4-5 days, although in the field some flies appeared to take a second blood-meal before the first was completely digested. No positive correlations were detected between fly abundance and weather conditions, except that maximum activity occurred at 20-32 deg C and 17-42% RH.

Clark, T. B., R. B. Henegar, et al. (1987). "New spiroplasmas from insects and flowers: isolation, ecology, and host association." Israel Journal of Medical Science 23(6): 687-690.
	Eight spiroplasma strains from insects and one from spring flowers failed to react with antisera specific for any of the 11 described spiroplasma groups, with sera directed against spiroplasma Group I subgroups, or with sera directed against two unnumbered groups previously reported to occur in tabanid flies. Strains, all from Maryland, were isolated from the hemolymph of the spotted cucumber beetle Diabrotica undecimpunctata and the lampyrid beetle Ellychnia corrusca, and the guts of the cantharid beetles Cantharis bilineatus and C. carolinus. Other strains were obtained from a tabanid fly, Tabanus gladiator and from the firefly Photuris pennsylvanica in Maryland and from the mosquito Culex tritaeniorhynchus in Taiwan. An isolate from pooled Cicadulina bipunctella leafhoppers in Syria apparently represented a unique group. A single isolate from spring flowers in Oklahoma also appeared to be unrelated to existing groups or subgroups. One-way deformation tests using sera prepared against known beetle and tabanid spiroplasmas showed each of the above strains to be unique. Although these results strongly indicate that the nine strains studied are representatives of unique new spiroplasma groups, the formal designation of new groups awaits fulfillment of recently proposed criteria.

Clark, T. B., B. V. Peterson, et al. (1984). "Spiroplasmas in the Tabanidae." Israel Journal of Medical Sciences 20(10): 1002-1005.
	Spiroplasmas were observed in seven species of the family Tabanidae (horse flies and deer flies). This is the fifth family of the order Diptera now known to harbor spiroplasmas. Noncultivable spiroplasmas were seen in the hemolymph of three species of the genus Tabanus, and cultivable forms were isolated from the guts of six species in three genera. Isolates from T. calens and T. sulcifrons were serologically similar and closely related to a spiroplasma in the lampyrid beetle, Ellychnia corrusca. These three isolates represent a new serogroup. Isolates from Hybomitra lasiophthalma were related to Group IV strains, while those from T. nigrovittatus and Chrysops sp. both represented new serogroups. At least some tabanids probably acquire spiroplasmas from contaminated flower surfaces. The possibility of vertebrate reservoirs for some tabanid spiroplasmas remains an open question.

Clark, T. B., J. G. Tully, et al. (1986). "Acholeplasmas and similar nonsterol-requiring Mollicutes from insects: missing link in microbial ecology." Current Microbiology 13(1): 11-16.
	Wall-less prokaryotes from the guts of the bibionid Plecia sp. from Peru, and a syrphid, the tabanids Tabanus catenatus and Chrysops discalis and the eumenid Monobia quadridens from Maryland were characterized. The strains grew at 23-32°C in conventional mycoplasma media containing 10% v/v serum, or in serum-free mycoplasma medium with or without fatty acid-Tween 80 supplements. No helical forms were noted in dark-field microscopy, and electron micrographs of thin sections of the strains showed a single membrane. Two strains, DF-2 and MQ-3 from Chrysops and Monobia, respectively, cross-reacted with antiserum against Acholeplasma florum. Although the other 3 strains did not react with Acholeplasma or Mycoplasma spp., they were otherwise characteristic of acholeplasmas. The study suggested that insects may constitute an important reservoir for acholeplasmas.

Clarke, J. E. (1968). "Seasonal abundance of Tabanidae at Mazabuka, Zambia." Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society London (A) 43: 108-121.
	
Cobb, P. E. and E. U. Balsbaugh, Jr. (1976). "The Tabanidae (Diptera) of Spink County, South Dakota." Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 49(4): 514-520.
	The tabanids of Spink County in South Dakota were surveyed in 1974, because their abundance will probably be affected by the proposed Missouri Basin irrigation scheme, which will divert water from the Missouri River for irrigation through this county. The most numerous species was Tabanus similis Macq., which is the worst tabanid pest of cattle in the area; populations showed 2 seasonal peaks, indicating the possibility of two generations. Chrysops aestuans Wulp, the species most severely affecting man, was the second most abundant. Hybomitra illota (O.-S.) was most abundant at sites consisting of large glacial lakes. Only 2 examples of C. fulvaster O.-S. were trapped.

Collins, W. B. and P. J. Urness (1982). "Mule deer and elk responses to horsefly attacks." Northwest Science 56(4): 299-302.
	Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk (Cervus elaphus) in Utah were found to be greatly disturbed by Hybomitra opaca (Coq.) and Tabanus punctifer O.S., but the 2 mammals exhibited distinctly different behaviour for coping with attacks. The compatibility of these behaviours with habitat preferences and other species-specific behaviour is discussed. Elk attracted 3 times as many tabanids as did deer.

Colman, J. E., C. Pedersen, et al. (2001). "Twenty-four-hour feeding and lying patterns of wild reindeer Rangifer tarandus in summer." Canadian Journal of Zoology(2168-2175).
	
Connal, A. and S. L. M. Connal (1922). "The development of Loa loa (Guyot) in Chrysops silacea (Austen) and in Chrysops dimidiata (Van der Wulp)." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 16: 64-89.
	
Cook, B. J. (1981). "The action of proctolin and 5-hydroxytryptamine on the oviduct of the horsefly, Tabanus proximis." International Journal of Invertebrate Reproduction 3(4): 209-212.
	Laboratory tests in the USA showed that proctolin and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT) caused a change in the spontaneous contractions of the oviduct of Tabanus proximus Wlk. Although both substances caused an increase in the amplitude and tonus of contractions, it was possible to distinguish between the 2 responses. 5HT (at 10-10-10-9 M) caused a pronounced increase in the frequency of phasic contractions in addition to changes in tonus. Proctolin (at 10-11 M), however, produced marked increases in both tonus and the amplitude of phasic contractions. The response profiles were remarkably similar to those previously reported for T. sulcifrons Macq. The distinctive responses obtained with the peptide and the indolamine from the 2 tabanids indicated that different receptor sites exist for each compound. Moreover, these sites may be linked to 2 different aspects of muscle function in the oviduct: the strong tonic contractions associated with egg movement and deposition mimicked by proctolin; and the small rhythmic movements that accompany the transfer of sperm simulated by 5HT. It is noted that indolamines have been implicated in the secretion from the accessory glands of several insects.

Cooksey, L. M. and R. E. Wright (1987). "Flight range and dispersal activity of the host-seeking horse fly, Tabanus abactor (Diptera: Tabanidae), in north-central Oklahoma." Environmental Entomology 16: 211-217.
	Flight range, dispersal activity and habitat preference were determined for Tabanus abactor in north central Oklahoma, using a mark-recapture technique. In 1982 and 1983, engorged and nonengorged adults were marked and released at the same release site. Flies were recaptured in 12 Malaise traps which were baited with carbon dioxide and located 0.4 and 0.8 km from the central release site in 1982, and in 20 traps located 0.4-2.4 km from the release site in 1983. A total of 45 153 flies were marked and released, with a mean recapture rate of 6.12%. Recapture rates of about 9 and 4% were achieved for the engorged and nonengorged flies, respectively. Engorged flies were recaptured in the greatest numbers on days 3 and 4 after release, whereas nonengorged flies were recaptured primarily on days 1 and 2. Dispersal of the engorged flies was the same as that of the nonengorged flies once digestion of the blood-meal had occurred. Marked flies were recaptured at all distances from the release site, but over 85% of those recaptured were collected within 8 days after release.

Cooksey, L. M. and R. E. Wright (1989). "Population estimation of the horse fly, Tabanus abactor (Diptera: Tabanidae), in northcentral Oklahoma." Journal of Medical Entomology 26(3): 167-172.
	A mark-recapture technique was used to estimate daily populations of host-seeking Tabanus abactor Philip. Daily population estimates were calculated for 31 and 37 d for areas of 2.1 km2 and 4.6 km2 for 1982 and 1983, respectively. In 1982, population estimates ranged from 22,767 to 2,125,322 flies/2.1 km2 per d with a mean of 467,277 flies/d. In 1983, population estimates ranged from 48,962 to 2,794,389 flies/4.6 km2 per d with a mean of 759,616 flies/d. The estimated average number of host-seeking females per hectare was 2,225 (0.22 flies/m2) and 1,651 (0.17 flies/m2) for 1982 and 1983, respectively. Although daily population estimates fluctuated greatly, primarily because of fluctuation in recapture rates, seasonal trends during both years were similar. The estimates calculated in this study appear to be representative of the population of T. abactor in northcentral Oklahoma based on previous studies determining seasonal abundance.

Cookson, D. M. (1967). "Some habits of male horse-flies in Rhodesia (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Annals of the Natal Museum 18: 647-654.
	
Corbet, P. S. (1961). "Entomological studies from a high tower in Mpanga Forest, Uganda VI. Nocturnal flight activity of Culicidae and Tabanidae as indicated by light-traps." Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society London 113: 301-314.
	
Corbet, P. S. and A. J. Haddow (1962). "Diptera swarming high above the forest canopy in Uganda, with special reference to Tabanidae." Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society London 114: 267-284.
	
Coscarón, S. (1979). "Notes on Argentine tabanids XVI. The genus Chrysops Meigen (Diptera, Insecta)." Acta Zoologica Lilloana 35: 365-392.
	The author reviews the 12 species of Chrysops (including 1 new species, which is described) that are known to occur in Argentina and provides keys for the separation of the adult females. Notes are given on their distribution within Argentina and elsewhere.

Coscarón, S. (1991). "Immature stages of seven neotropical species of the genus Dasybasis Macquart (Tabanidae, Diptera, Insecta)." Acta Entomologica Chilena 16(0): 7-24.
	Larvae and pupae of Dasybasis andicola (Philippi) D. canipilis Kroeber, D. opaca (Brethes), D. testaceomaculata (Macquart), and pupae of D. chilensis (Macquart) are described; larva and pupa of D. fairchildi Coscaron & Philip and D. nigra (Enderlein) are redescribed. A genus diagnosis based on immatures, keys and illustrations are included.

Coscarón, S. (1999). "Male description of four species of Argentina horse flies (Diptera; Tabanidae)." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 239-247.
	
Coscarón, S. and C. R. González (1991). "Tabanidae from Chile: Annotated list of species and key to the genera reported from Chile." Acta Entomologica Chilena 16: 125-150.
	A list with 16 genera and 110 species reported from Chile, with geographic distribution and bibliographic references is presented in this paper. Esenbeckia (E.) enderleini Kroeber Findena (Fidena) atripes (Roder), Daybasis (D.) albosignata (Kroeber), D. (D.) bulbula Coscaron & Philip, D. (D.) vasta Coscaron & Philip, D. (A.) lanei Coscaron & Philip are new records from Chile. A key with subfamilies, tribus, genera and subgenera, with illustration also is offered.

Coscarón, S., O. A. Mancebo, et al. (1999). "Description of male, larva and pupa of Stibasoma theotaenia (Wiedemann) (Diptera-Tabanidae)." Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 94(5): 619-623.
	Unknown male, larva and pupa of Stibasoma theotaenia from northern Argentina are described and illustrated. Larvae were collected from terrestrial Bromeliaceae of Aechnea sp. and maintained in the laboratory through development.

Coscarón, S. and N. Papavero (1993). An illustrated manual for the identification of the neotropical genera and subgenera of Tabanidae (Diptera). Belem, Brazil, Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi/Biblioteca (MPEG).
	Text is a taxonomic key which aids in the identification of the subfamilies, tribes, genera, and subgenera of the nootropic Tabanidae (Diptera). Entomologists will find this text most useful. There are a total of 102 genera and subgenera identified. Classification and taxonomic keys are included for the subfamilies Tabanidae, Pangoniinae, Chrysopsinae, and Tabanidae. Separate descriptions of individual taxa are not included. Supplementing the text are 100 pages of illustrations of the various genera and subgenera. Acknowledgements, references, and an index close the text.

Coscarón, S. and C. B. Philip (1967). "Revision del genero "Dasybasis" Macquart en la region neotropical (Diptera-Tabanidae)." Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia" (Entomologia) 2: 15-256.
	
Coscarón, S. and C. B. Philip (1979). "A revision of Mycteromyiini ('genus Mycteomyia' of authors), a new tribe of Neotropical horse flies (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences 41(19): 427-452.
	A revision of species hitherto placed in the genus Mycteromyia is presented. It was found necessary to redistribute the flies taxonomically, and full details of the proposed redistribution are given, together with descriptions of a new genus and several new species. The revision involves the establishment of a new tribe (Mycteromyiini).

Coscarón, S. and R. C. Wilkerson (1985). "South American Scaptia (Scaptia) (Diptera: Tabanidae) with a key to species of the subgenus." Myia 3: 277-298.
	Scaptia abdominosa, S. albithorax, S. aureonigra, S. aureopygia, S. collaris, S. lata, S. rubriventris, S. rufa, S. sublata and S. varia are reviewed.

Couch, J. N., R. V. Andreeva, et al. (1979). "Tabanomyces milkoi (Dudka and Koval) emended, genus novum, a fungal pathogen of horse flies." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 76: 2299-2302.
	
Couvillion, C. E., V. F. Nettles, et al. (1986). "Temporal occurrence of third-stage larvae of Elaeophora schneideri in Tabanus lineola hinellus on South Island, South Carolina." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 22(2): 196-200.
	The occurrence of third-stage larvae of the arterial worm (Elaeophora schneideri) in populations of the horse fly, Tabanus lineola hinellus, was studied on South Island, Georgetown County, South Carolina. Over the period from mid-April to mid-October 1982, horse flies had a bimodal pattern of abundance with peak populations in June and September. During individual bimonthly horse fly collections, the prevalence of infection of T. l. hinellus ranged from 0 to 1.23%. Prevalence of infected horse flies was biphasic with peaks in mid-May (1.23%) and mid-August (1.22%), 2 to 4 wk prior to peaks in horse fly populations. The intensity of infection of T. l. hinellus increased as time progressed and was highest in late summer. This increase resulted in greater recovery of infective larvae during August-September (mean intensity = 25) than in May-June (mean intensity = 4). Both prevalence and intensity of infection of T. l. hinellus were low compared to primary intermediate hosts of E. schneideri in the western U.S.

Couvillion, C. E., D. C. Sheppard, et al. (1984). "Intermediate hosts of Elaeophora schneideri Wehr and Dikmans, 1935 on South Island, South Carolina." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 20(1): 59-61.
	From July to September 1981 and April to mid-October 1982 in South Island, South Carolina, USA, 25 521 horseflies of 8 species were examined. 430 larvae of E. schneideri were obtained from 31 of 10 540 Tabanus lineola hinellus and 2 from one of 9543 T. nigrovittatus. No larvae were found in 907 Chrysops atlanticus, 719 C. fuliginosus, 3308 Hybomitra spp., 502 T. atratus fulvopilosus or 2 T. gladiator.

Crewe, W. (1961). "The rate of development of larvae of Loa loa in Chrysops silacea at Kumba, and the effect of temperature upon it." Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 55: 211-216.
	
Crosskey, R. W. (1980). Catalogue of the Diptera of the Afrotropical region. London, British Museum (Natural History).
	
Cruz, J. d. l. and I. Garcia Avila (1974). "The horse-flies and deer-flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) of Cuba." Poeyana 125: 1-91.
	A list with notes on morphology, habitats and distribution is given of 29 of the 30 Tabanid species that have been recorded from Cuba, the remaining record, that of Tabanus townsendi Johnson, being considered doubtful. The species dealt with include 6 that are described as new and 4 that are here recorded for the first time from Cuba. The males of 4 species are described for the first time, and a new subspecies is also described, and two males that it was not possible to relate with known species are described but not named. T. gundlachi n. n. is proposed for T. bifloccus Hine [RAE/B 14, p. 71], which is stated to be preoccupied.

Cuisance, D., N. Barré, et al. (1994). "Ectoparasites des animaux: méthodes de lutte écologique, biologique, génétique et mécanique." Revue scientifique et technique Office internationale des Epizooties 13(4): 1305-1356.
	
Dagnachew, S., A. K. Sangwan, et al. (2005). "Epidemiology of bovine trypanosomosis in the Abay (Blue Nile) basin areas of Northwest Ethiopia." Revue d'Élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 58(3): 151-157.
	The study was conducted between September 2003 and April 2004 in Denbecha
and Jabitehenan weredas (districts) located in the lowland (< 1600 m)
and midland (1600-2000 m) areas. It generated a baseline data on the epidemiology
of trypanosomosis and community awareness regarding the disease in
the Abay (Blue Nile) Basin areas of Northwest Ethiopia. A questionnaire survey
revealed trypanosomosis to be the most important problem affecting animals
and impeding agricultural activities in the areas. Glossina morsitans submorsitans
was the only tsetse fly species prevalent along with other biting tabanid
and muscid flies. The apparent fly densities (flies/trap/day) were significantly
higher (p < 0.05) in the late rainy season (1.08, 8.78 and 91 for G. m. submorsitans,
tabanids and muscids, respectively) than in the dry season (0.68, 0.35
and 7.33, respectively). The apparent density of G. m. submorsitans was significantly
higher (p < 0.05) in the lowland areas than in the midland areas in both
the late rainy season and the dry season. A total of 1648 cattle were examined
for trypanosomosis with the buffy coat technique and the seasonal prevalence
(17.07 and 12.35%, respectively) was significantly (p < 0.05) different. Infection
rates were higher (p < 0.05) in the lowland areas, with 19.87 and 17.62%,
than in the midland areas, with 13.39 and 6.54%, in the late rainy season and
the dry season, respectively. The mean packed cell volume (PCV) values of
parasitemic and aparasitemic animals during the late rainy season were 20.7 ±
3.5 and 26.6 ± 4.3 (p < 0.001), while they were 21.4 ± 3.6 and 26.6 ± 4.3
(p < 0.001) during the dry season, respectively. The regression analysis indicated
that the herd average PCV decreased with the increasing prevalence of
trypanosome infections in both seasons.

Dale, W. E. and R. C. Axtell (1975). "Flight of the salt marsh Tabanidae (Diptera), Tabanus nigrovittatus, Chrysops atlanticus and C. fuliginosus: correlation with temperature, light, moisture and wind velocity." Journal of Medical Entomology 12: 551-557.
	The flight activities of Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq. (collected in traps) and Chrysops atlanticus Pechuman and C. fuliginosus Wied. (both collected by hand from man), in North Carolina were measured in the field and correlated with the environmental conditions during the collection periods. The highest numbers of T. nigrovittatus were associated with an intermediate light intensity (40 000 lux), temperatures of about 25 deg C and no wind. C. atlanticus was most active at relatively low light intensity (5000 lux), high temperatures (30 deg C) and air moisture equivalent to 8 mm mercury vapour pressure deficit. The greatest activity of C. fuliginosus was associated with high levels of light (100 000 lux). Graphs are presented for both the actual and predicted levels of flight activity for the significantly correlated values of light, vapour pressure deficit, temperature and wind for each species.

Dale, W. E. and R. C. Axtell (1976). "Salt marsh Tabanidae (Diptera): comparison of abundance and distribution in Spartina and Juncus habitats." Journal of Medical Entomology 12(6): 671-678.
	Greater diversity in species and higher numbers of adult female tabanids were collected in sticky traps and box traps in Spartina than in Juncus marshes in the central coast area of North Carolina during a 2-year study. The 3 most abundant species in both types of marshes were Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq., Chrysops atlanticus Pechuman and C. fuliginosus Wied. T. nigrovittatus was collected from 10 May to 25 September and had a peak from 5 to 14 June; C. atlanticus was collected from 23 April to 26 September, with a peak from 31 May to 8 June; C. fuliginosus was present from 8 April to 8 June, with a peak in the first week of May. Horizontal distribution in Spartina marsh habitats was determined by sticky traps. The highest numbers of T. nigrovittatus were trapped in the marsh; the lowest were obtained from the upland behind and inside nearby woods. The highest numbers of C. atlanticus were collected in the upland behind the woods and slightly less in the inner marsh; the lowest numbers were obtained from the upland inside the woods, the ecotone and the outer marsh. The highest numbers of C. fuliginosus were trapped in the inner marsh and the lowest from upland behind the woods.

D'Amico, F., J. P. Gouteux, et al. (1996). "Are stable flies (Diptera: Stomoxyinae) vectors of Trypanosoma vivax in the Central African Republic?" Veterinary Research 27: 161-170.
	
Daniels, G. (1989). Family Tabanidae. Catalog of the Diptera of the Australasian and Oceanian regions. Bishop Museum Special Publication 86, Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu and H. G. Brill, Leiden.
	This catalogue includes some taxonomic changes: Pseudotabanus peregrinus comb. nov. (= Mesomyia peregrinus); and Cydistomyia chaineyi nom. nov. (= C. nana Mackerras & Rageau).

Danks, H. V. (1981). Arctic arthropods. Ottawa, Entomological Society of Canada.
	
Datta, M. and S. Biswas (1977). "A preliminary study of the insect fauna of Meghalaya, India. 12. Species of the genera Tabanus L. and Haematopota Mg. of the family Tabanidae (Diptera)." Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences  B 86(2): 127-133.
	A review of the literature indicated that 13 species of Tabanus and 9 of Haematopota have hitherto been recorded from Meghalaya, India. In this paper, T. meghalayensis sp. n., T. miniatus sp. n. and H. nigrifrons sp. n. are described and illustrated from females collected from the Garo Hills, Meghalaya, in 1973. Notes are also given on 3 other species of Tabanus collected in the state.

Dattam, M. (1991). "New records of Tabanidae from Darjeeling District (West Bengal) and Sikkim, India (Diptera)." Journal of Bengal Natural History Society 10(1): 16-23.
	A total of 15 tabanid species: Philoliche longirostris, Chrysops dispar, Atylotus agrestis, Tabanus acallus, T. albofasciatus, T. jucundus, T. monotaeniatus, T. orientis, T. parafuscomaculatus, T. rubicundus, T. rubidus, T. striatus, Haematopota albofasciatipennis, H. annandalei and H. lata were recorded either from the Darjeeling District of West Bengal or from Sikkim, or from both states (2 species). A note on their distribution is included for each species.

Davies, D. M. (1959). "Seasonal variation of tabanids (Diptera) in Algonquin Park, Ontario." Canadian Entomologist 91: 548-553.
	
Davies, R. B. and G. G. Clark (1974). "Trypanosomes from elk and horse flies in New Mexico." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 10(1): 63-65.
	Trypanosomes (Trypanosoma spp.) of undetermined species were isolated in June 1972 from 5 to 7 elk (Cervus canadensis) captured in the winter of 1971-72 in Wyoming and transported to Red Rock, New Mexico, and, by culture, from 29 of 31 adults of Hybomitra laticornis (Hine) collected in the Gila National Forest, New Mexico in June 1972. Sixteen of the adults of H. laticornis were found to be infected with larvae of the filarial parasite Elaeophora schneideri, indicating that they had fed on mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Mule deer in New Mexico as well as white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) in the south-eastern United States have previously been found infected with typanosomes. The trypanosomes from the Tabanids and the elk were almost identical in size.

Davis, J. W. and R. C. Anderson (1971). Parasitic diseases of wild mammals. Ames, Iowa State University Press.
	
Davis, S. G. and D. P. Sanders (1981). "Seasonal and geographical distribution of Tabanus abactor Philip in the Texas Rolling Plains." Southwestern Entomologist 6(2): 81-86.
	Trap sampling was carried out in an area covering 3 counties in the Texas Rolling Plains in 1978-79 to determine the seasonal distribution of adults of Tabanus abactor Philip, which is considered to be one of the most damaging livestock pests in the area. Geographical distribution studies were also carried out within the boundaries of the Texas Rolling Plains during the same period. The tabanid was found to be present from mid-June to mid-September in the 3-county area and was found inhabiting 46 of the 62 counties within the defined geographical region. Other tabanid species collected are listed.

De Bassi, R. M. A. (1997). "Description of Fidena campolarguense sp. n. (Diptera, Tabanidae) from Brazil." Acta Biologica Paranaense 26(1-4): 23-32.
	Description of a new species of Fidena Walker (Diptera, Tabanidae) from Brazil. Fidena campolarguense sp. n., female from southern Brazil is described and illustrated. This species is recognized by a long and narrow proboscis and the tergite VI with hair tufts on the right and left sides.

De Garine-Wichatitsky, M., R. A. Cheke, et al. (2001). "Effects of tsetse targets on mammals and birds in Kasungu National Park, Malawi." Biodiversity and Conservation 10(6): 869-891.
	
Dede, P. M., I. Halid, et al. (2005). "Current tsetse and trypanosomosis situation on Jos Plateau, Nigeria. Epizootiological factors that may enhance disease transmission and spread." Revue d'Élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 58(1-2): 31-35.
	Tsetse and trypanosomosis surveys were carried out in Jos-East, Riyom, Bassa
and Bokkos local government areas (LGAs) of Jos Plateau, Nigeria. They followed
reports of cases of trypanosomosis that led to the death of several livestock animals
in the areas. Biconical and Nitse traps were pitched in suspected tsetse
habitats. Also, cattle and sheep from selected native and Fulani herds within
the areas surveyed were screened. Altogether 240 tsetse flies were caught, comprising
114 Glossina tachinoides and 126 G. palpalis palpalis, and revealing an
overall apparent density of 4.63 flies/trap/day. Fly dissection showed an overall
infection rate of 1.67% due to Trypanosoma brucei and T. vivax. Also, 87
G. tachinoides pupae were collected from Bassa and Jos-East LGAs. Other biting
flies totaling 1536 were caught (Stomoxys, Tabanus and Haematopota). A
total of 1053 cattle and 65 sheep were screened for trypanosome infection. The
hematocrit centrifugation, animal inoculation, and morphological differential
techniques were used to determine trypanosome species and prevalence rates.
Results revealed a 7.79% prevalence rate in cattle due to T. brucei, T. congolense,
T. vivax, and T. theileri, and a 3.08 prevalence rate in sheep due to T. vivax.
The main factors that may predispose Jos Plateau to tsetse presence and trypanosomosis
infection include dry and rainy seasons’ cattle migrations across the plateau
to and from tsetse infested areas, abundance of other biting flies, changes
in climatic conditions and increased human activities. These findings have
debunked the protracted notion upholding Jos Plateau to be tsetse and trypanosomosis
free; hence the safety of resident and migrant livestock, which unfortunately
have increased in recent times, may no longer be guaranteed because of
the trypanosomosis risk.

Degiusti, D. L., C. R. Sterling, et al. (1973). "Transmission of the chelonian haemoproteid Haemoproteus metchnikovi by a tabanid fly Chrysops callidus." Nature 242(5392): 50-51.
	Haemoproteus metchnikovi (Simond, 1901), also referred to by Garnham1 as Simondia metchnikovi, is a parasite of chelonians. For a number of years we have studied haematophagous insects that feed on turtles in an attempt to discover the mode of transmission of H. metchnikovi. Insects were collected, dissected and examined for the presence of intermediate developmental stages and sporozoites. During these studies a sporozoite was found in the salivary glands of the fly Chrysops callidus 2 (Diptera: Tabanidae), which gave rise to typical gametocytes of H. metchnikovi in erythrocytes when inoculated into laboratory raised turtles, Chrysemys picta. We believe this is the first report of a dipteran of the family Tabanidae serving as the intermediate host of a haemosporidian.

Dely, D. A. and H. Takahasi (1994). "Additional records on the Tabanidae fauna of North Korea (Diptera)." Folia Entomologica Hungarica 55: 59-64.
	Distributional data on 21 species of Tabanidae are given. Three species (Tabanus murdochi, T. taiwanus and T. yao) are mentioned for the first time in North Korea.

Deshpande, S. B. (1980). "The functional myology of the visceral abdomen of Tabanus lineola F. (Dipt., Tabanidae)." Entomologist's Monthly Magazine 116(1392-1395): 105-108.
	The pregenital abdominal musculature in adults of Tabanus lineola F. is described, and its functions are discussed.

Desquesnes, M. (1997). Les trypanosomoses du bétail en Amérique Latine, étude spéciale dans le Plateau des Guyanes, Ph.D. Thesis. France, Université du droit et de la santé de Lille.
	
Desquesnes, M. (2004). Livestock trypanosomoses and their vectors in Latin America. Paris, Office internationale des Epizooties.
	This study of livestock trypanosomoses in Latin America, the first of its kind, provides an overview of the situation as it was between 1990 and 1995, and will serve as a benchmark for future studies and comparisons. The study’s appraisal of mechanical vectors and their harmful effects focuses on the damage that Tabanids can cause, and provides statistics on their impact on the livestock industry. These statistics alone provide sufficient justification for undertaking seasonal strategic control measures against these insects, whose effect on livestock, while often localised and short-lived, has not thus far been given proper consideration.

This book’s analysis of the typical epidemiology of mechanically transmitted bovine trypanosomosis can be used as a model not only for Latin America, but also for areas of Africa where Glossina populations have receded, and where, therefore, biologically transmitted trypanosomosis has been eradicated. As a result of the elimination of this biological vector (even after the Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Eradication Campaign [PATTEC]), a pattern of purely mechanical transmission may become established in these areas and this study will be useful for veterinarians in Africa as they investigate ways to control this type of transmission cycle.

The general overview of diagnostic tools and methods of controlling trypanosomoses can be applied to America, Africa and Asia. Similarly, the data on mechanically transmitted trypanosomes provides a model for different mechanically transmitted pathogens on several continents and as such, this book will be of interest to a broad range of readers.

Students, teachers and researchers will find this review useful, as will physicians and epidemiologists dealing with Chagas’ disease, an important human disease caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. Although largely found in Latin America it has been reported in eight southern states of the United States of America and appears to be progressing northwards. The disease is not well-defined, but this publication contains the information that is currently available and highlights the crucial role played by wild and domestic animals in the epidemiology of this disease. 
CONTENTS
Introduction 
Prehistoric development 
Origin of livestock trypanosomoses in Latin America 
Importance 
CHAPTER 1: TRYPANOSOMES
1. NOMENCLATURE AND MORPHOLOGY 
2. MAMMALIAN HOSTS 
3. TRANSMISSION 
CHAPTER 2: PATHOGENICITY, CLINICAL SIGNS AND CHARACTERISATION OF LIVESTOCK TRYPANOSOMES IN LATIN AMERICA 
1. PATHOGENICITY AND CLINICAL SIGNS 
2. PARASITE CHARACTERISATION 
CHAPTER 3: THE MECHANICAL VECTORS OF TRYPANOSOMES AND THEIR HARMFUL EFFECTS 
1. THE MORPHOLOGY AND BIOLOGY OF MECHANICAL VECTORS 
2. DIRECT AND INDIRECT HARMFUL EFFECTS OF HÆMATOPHAGOUS INSECTS 
3. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF HÆMATOPHAGOUS INSECTS 
4. CONCLUSIONS 
CHAPTER 4 : DIAGNOSIS 
1. PARASITOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES 
2. DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS USING ANTIBODY SEROLOGY 
3. ANTIGEN SEROLOGY DIAGNOSIS 
4. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)-BASED DIAGNOSIS 
5. DIAGNOSIS IN VECTORS 
6. CONCLUSIONS ON DIAGNOSIS OF TRYPANOSOMOSES IN LATIN AMERICA 
CHAPTER 5: OVERALL EPIDEMIOLOGY AND THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TRYPANOSOMA VIVAX IN FRENCH GUIANA 
1. GENERAL EPIDEMIOLOGY OF T. VIVAX AND T. EVANSI 
2. GENERAL EPIDEMIOLOGY OF OTHER TRYPANOSOMES
3. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 
4. CONCLUSIONS ON OVERALL EPIDEMIOLOGY 
5. ANALYTICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY OF T. VIVAX IN FRENCH GUIANA 
CHAPTER 6: CONTROL OF TRYPANOSOMES AND THEIR VECTORS 
1. CHEMICAL CONTROL OF TRYPANOSOMES 
2. PROSPECTS FOR IMMUNOLOGICAL CONTROL OF TRYPANOSOMES 
3. PROSPECTS FOR IMMUNOLOGICAL CONTROL OF TABANIDS 
4. CONTROL OF TRYPANOSOME TRANSMISSION 
5. CONTROL OF TRYPANOSOME VECTORS 
6. OVERALL CONCLUSIONS ON CONTROL 
SUMMARIES AND CONCLUSIONS 
1. CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE TECHNIQUES FOR DIAGNOSING LIVESTOCK TRYPANOSOMOSES IN LATIN AMERICA 
2. BOVINE TRYPANOSOMOSIS IN FRENCH GUIANA, AN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL MODEL – THE CONTROL OF PARASITES AND VECTORS 
3. CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE STRATEGIES FOR CONTROLLING TRYPANOSOMOSES IN LATIN AMERICA 
4. THE SPREAD OF LIVESTOCK TRYPANOSOMOSES IN AMERICA OVER TIME AND SPACE – OUTLOOK 
5. TRYPANOSOME TRANSMISSION IN AMERICA AND AFRICA – AN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL COMPARISON 

Desquesnes, M., F. Biteau-Coroller, et al. (2008). "Development of a mathematical model for mechanical transmission of trypanosomes and other pathogens of cattle transmitted by tabanids." International Journal for Parasitology XXX: In Press.
	Mechanical transmission of pathogens by biting insects is a non-specific phenomenon in which pathogens
are transmitted from the blood of an infected host to another host during interrupted feeding of
the insects. A large range of pathogens can be mechanically transmitted, e.g. hemoparasites, bacteria
and viruses. Some pathogens are almost exclusively mechanically transmitted, while others are also
cyclically transmitted. For agents transmitted both cyclically and mechanically (mixed transmission),
such as certain African pathogenic trypanosomes, the relative impact of mechanical versus cyclical transmission
is essentially unknown. We have developed a mathematical model of pathogen transmission by a
defined insect population to evaluate the importance of mechanical transmission. Based on a series of
experiments aimed at demonstrating mechanical transmission of African trypanosomes by tabanids,
the main parameters of the model were either quantified (host parasitaemia, mean individual insect burden,
initial prevalence of infection) or estimated (unknown parameters). This model allows us to simulate
the evolution of pathogen prevalence under various predictive circumstances, including control measures
and could be used to assess the risk of mechanical transmission under field conditions. If adjustments of
parameters are provided, this model could be generalized to other pathogenic agents present in the blood
of their hosts (Bovine Leukemia virus, Anaplasma, etc.) or other biting insects such as biting muscids
(stomoxyines) and hippoboscids.

Desquesnes, M., G. Bossard, et al. (2008). "First outbreak of Trypanosoma evansi in camels in metropolitan France." Veterinary Record 162(23): 750-752.
	The first outbreak of trypanosomosis caused by Trypanosoma evansi in camels in France was reported on a farm in the Aveyron Department. Five camels were imported from the Canary Islands to the farm in early July 2006, and trypanosomes were observed on a stained blood smear from one of them, which died in October. On further investigations, trypanosomes were observed in the blood of five camels, three of them indigenous to the farm and two that had been imported. On the basis of microscopical examination (morphological criteria and measurements) and serological results based on the card agglutination T evansi test and PCR typing, the parasites were identified as T evansi. After treatment with melarsomine, the infected camels rapidly became negative by parasitological tests and were negative two to four months later by serological tests. The parasite was probably transmitted by tabanids and Stomoxys calcitrans, which were abundant in July to September 2006. No parasites were observed in other animals on the farm or on neighbouring farms, but some of the sheep on these farms were positive by PCR or serology.

Desquesnes, M. and M. L. Dia (2003). "Trypanosoma vivax: mechanical transmission in cattle by one of the most common African tabanids, Atylotus agrestis." Experimental Parasitology 103: 35-43.
	The role of mechanical vectors in the transmission of African livestock trypanosomes has always been controversial relative to tsetse flies, their cyclical vectors. An experiment was carried out in Burkina Faso to demonstrate mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma vivax by one of the most common tabanids in Africa: Atylotus agrestis. Eight heifers (crossbred zebu×Baoulé), free of trypanosome infection, were kept in a corral covered by a mosquito net, together with two heifers infected experimentally with a local stock of T. vivax. On average, 324 A. agrestis, freshly captured with Nzi traps, were introduced daily over 20 days. Parasitological, PCR and serological examinations were carried out regularly to assess infections and levels of parasitaemia. Microscopic examination of buffy-coats indicated that five of the eight receiver-heifers were infected on days 8, 13, 32, 41, and 48. PCR results indicated that these five heifers were already infected by day 13. Mechanical transmission of T. vivax by A. agrestis was demonstrated unequivocally, at a high rate (63% in 1320 days). Conditions of transmission in this experiment are discussed in terms of natural rates of challenge. The importance of tabanids as mechanical vectors of T. vivax should be re-considered, in light of these results. Creation of tsetse free zones in Africa will generally lead to the disappearance of T. congolense, T. brucei, and most often T. vivax as well; however, in areas where T. vivax can be mechanically transmitted, clearance of tsetse may not be sufficient to eradicate livestock trypanosomosis.

Desquesnes, M. and M. L. Dia (2004). "Mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma vivax in cattle by the African tabanid Atylotus fuscipes." Veterinary Parasitology 119: 9-19.
	An experiment was carried out in Burkina Faso to evaluate the potential for
mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma vivax by the African tabanid Atylotus
fuscipes. The experiment was carried out in a corral (10 m x 10 m) completely
covered by a mosquito net (12 m x 12 m and 2.5m high). Eight heifers (cross-bred
Zebu X Baoule), free of trypanosome infection, were kept together with two
heifers experimentally infected with a local stock of T. vivax. An average of
539 A. fuscipes per day, freshly captured with two Nzi traps, were introduced
into the mosquito net from Day 1 to 20, to allow mechanical transmission of the
parasites among cattle. Daily parasitological examinations (BCM) of cattle blood
samples indicated that six of the eight receiver heifers were positive from days
9, 10, 15, 16, 19 and 29. Mechanical transmission of T. vivax by A. fuscipes was
demonstrated unequivocally in close to natural conditions, at a high rate (75%
incidence over a 20-day period) under a mean challenge of 54 insects per heifer
per day. These results, in addition to previous demonstration of mechanical
transmission of T. vivax by Atylotus agrestis, confirm that mechanical
transmission can be a significant route of infection.

Desquesnes, M., M. L. Dia, et al. (2005). Les vecteurs mécaniques des trypanosomoses animales; Généralités, morphologie, biologie, impacts et contrôle. Identification des espèces les plus abondantes en Afrique de l’Ouest. Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l'Elevage en zone Subhumide 
	
Detinova, T., .S. (1962). Age-grouping methods in Diptera of medical importance. World Health Organisation Monograph Series No. 47. Geneva, WHO.
	
Dia, M. L., M. Desquesnes, et al. (2004). "Evaluation of a new trap for tabanids and stomoxyines." Bulletin de la Societe Royale Belge d'Entomologie 140: 72-81.
	
Dia, M. L., M. Desquesnes, et al. (2008). "Tetra trap: evaluation of a small model for catching aimal trypanosomosis vectors." Revue de Médecine Vétérinaire 159(1): 17-21.
	The aim of the present study is to compare the effectiveness of 2 models of Tetra trap (the big and the small models) in the catching of potential vectors of animal trypanosomosis. For that, 4 traps (2 of each model) have been placed in a savannah zone and 2 traps (one of each model) in the Comoe river border during 58 days (from the 30 June 2004 to the 15 March 2005). A total of 922 stomoxes, 610 tabanids and 1800 tsetse flies have been caught by these six traps. The efficiency of the catching of the stomoxes and tsetse flies was similar for the 2 models in the 2 sites (savannah and river border) whereas some species of tabanids (T. gratus, T. par and Ancala necopina) were significantly more often trapped in the river border with the big model. Nevertheless, the small Tetra trap can be henceforth proposed for the capture of animal trypanosomosis vectors like the big model because of its handiness, its cheaper cost price and of a global efficiency similar to the big one.

Dia, M. L., C. Diop, et al. (1997). "Importance of camel trypanosomosis and its vectors in Mauritania." Journal of Camel Practice and Research 4(2): 271-276.
	An epidemiological survey of Trypanosoma evansi was conducted on 2062 dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius) of all ages (528 males and 1534 females) from 82 herds in 4 provinces (Trarza, Gorgol, Adrar, Hodh Chargui) presenting different climatic and ecological conditions. The prevalence of the infection was determined through blood smear examination and serological tests: CATT, IFAT and ELISA, Ag-detection. Collection of tabanids was done by trapping (hand nets on animals, car moving slowly). The overall parasitological prevalence of the disease was 1.4%. Seropositivity rates were 16.5% with CATT, 24.3% with IFAT and 14.0% with antigen ELISA. Variations were observed depending upon region, herd management strategy and age of the animals. Flies trapped were: Atylopus agrestis (63.8±4%), Tabanus taeniola (24.4±4%), T. sufis (11.8±3%), Haematobia minuta and the hippoboscids Hippobosca camelina and H. variegata. These species were particularly abundant during the end of the rainy season, but could be found throughout the year. Most of the time T. taeniola and A. agrestis were caught in pastures, while T. sufis was caught by traps placed near water.

Dia, M. L., P. Elsen, et al. (1998). "Abundance and seasonal variations of tabanids in southern Trarza (Mauritania)." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 849: 456-460.
	A study of Tabanidae was undertaken in southern Trarza, Mauritania, an area with ample water and vegetation, from October 1994 to November 1996. 3 traps were placed in pastures near the lake and were used over 4-5 days. Insects were also collected from behind moving camels [dromedaries]. 1040 tabanids, an average of 25 per day per trap were caught, most between October and November at the end of the rainy season. Traps placed in the pasture caught 80% of the population. 3 species of tabanids were caught, Tabanus taeniola, T. sufis, and Atylotus agrestis. A. agrestis was most abundant (67.5%) followed by T. taeniola (23.4%) and T. sufis (9.1%). Tabanids were attracted to the traps after 11.00 h with most collected between 12.00 h and 15.00 h. 185 Stomoxynae were caught, although this is not representative because many more escaped. They belonged to Haematobia minuta (85%) and H. irritans (15%). In addition 50 Hippobosca were collected on animals and included H. camelina and H. variegata.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1960). "Nova contribução ao estudo dos tabanídeos (Diptera, Tabanidae) de Angola." Publicações culturais de Companhia de Diamantes de Angola 53: 1-125.
	
Dias, J. A. T. S. (1973). "New contribution to knowledge of the tabanids (Diptera-Tabanidae) of Angola." Revista de Ciencias Veterinarias, A 6: 137-185.
	A study is described of 83 specimens of tabanids from Angola representing 32 taxa, of which 8 are new for Angola and bring the total for the country to 149 species. The new records include 3 species that are new to science. Keys are given to Angolan species to include the taxa new for the fauna.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1974). "Further new data on the Tabanid fauna (Diptera - Tabanidae) of Angola." Serie Cientifica, Instituto de Investigacao Agronomico de Angola 35: 1-26.
	A small consignment of Tabanids from Angola was studied, and descriptions are given of females of 3 new species. A list is appended of the Tabanids known from Angola, which now number 149, including 65 species of Haematopota, 53 species of Tabanus (one represented by 2 forms) and 11 species of Chrysops.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1977). "New studies on the Angolan tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Publicações culturais de Companhia de Diamantes de Angola 89: 153-174.
	Collection data are given for a group of some 33 tabanids sent to the author from Angola, 5 of the species, including 1 new one that is here described, being new for that country. The genus Thaumastocera is recorded for the first time in Angola. Keys are provided to some of the groups to which a number of the Angolan tabanids are assigned for the first time.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1978). "New contribution to the knowledge of tabanids (Diptera - Tabanidae) of Portugal." Anais da Faculdade de Ciencias do Porto 61(1-4): 211-232.
	Tabanus luizae sp.n., T. mateusi sp.n. and T. pseudolunatus sp.n. are described from females collected in Portugal. This brings the total number of species of Tabanus known in that country to 20; a key is provided to the females.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1984). "Notes on the tabanids (Diptera - Tabanidae) of Portugal. VIII - Study of a new batch collected by Engineer Tristao Branco." Boletim da Sociedade  Portuguesa de Entomologia 2(34 (No. 64)): 437-454.
	Among 11 species identified in a collection of horseflies from throughout Portugal, Haematopota scutellata is considered to be a new record for the country. Other species examined were Tabanus bromius, T. cordiger, T. exclusus, T. luizae, T. sudeticus, T. tinctus, Atylotus latistriatus, H. italica, Pangonius hermanni and P. variegatus. A key for the identification of females of species of Tabanus from Portugal is presented.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1985). "A new species of horse-fly (Diptera, Tabanidae) from Mozambique: Tabanus mossambicensis sp. n." Cahiers ORSTOM, séries Entomologie médicale et Parasitologie 23(1): 31-33.
	
Dias, J. A. T. S. (1985). "Notes on the tabanids (Diptera-Tabanidae) of Portugal. XII. Some horseflies collected by Prof. Doctor J.A. Quartau." Boletim da Sociedade Portuguesa de Entomologia 4(Suplemento No. 1): 137-147; , June 1985.
	Haematopota quartaui sp. nov. is described from a collection of horseflies made in Portugal. Other species identified were Tabanus eggeri, T. exclusus, H. italica and H. pluvialis. A key to females of the 11 species of Haematopota present in Portugal is given.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1987). "Atelozomyia thalassae n.gen., n.sp., a new tabanid (Diptera - Tabanidae) from southern Africa." Boletim da Sociedade Portuguesa de Entomologia 3(15 (No. 85)): 1-8.
	Atelozomyia thalassae gen. et sp. nov. (of the tribe Diachlorini) is described, based on a female collected in Namibia, and now in the collection of the State Museum of Windhoek. The genus is distinguished from Atelozella by the trapezoidal form of the frons and absence of the basal callus.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1987). "Description of a new genus and a new species of tabanid (Diptera - Tabanidae) from Southwest Africa, Bartolomeudiasiella atlanticus gen. et sp. nov." Boletim da Sociedade Portuguesa de Entomologia 3(14 (No. 84)): 1-8.
	Bartolomeudiasiella atlanticus gen. et sp. nov. is described from Namibia. It belongs to the tribe Diachlorini.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1987). "Description of two new species of tabanids (Diptera - Tabanidae) from Southwest Africa." Garcia de Orta Serie de Zoologia 14(2): 57-60.
	Tabanus namibiensis sp. nov. and Chrysops okavangoensis sp. nov. from Namibia are described. They are differentiated from, respectively, T. crocodilinus and C. fuscipennis.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1987). "Some Tabanidae species (Diptera) of the collection of the Royal Museum of Central Africa (Tervueren, Belgium)." Garcia de Orta Serie de Zoologia 14(2): 51-56.
	The author, after having examined several specimens of horseflies belonging to the collection of the Royal Museum of Central Africa (Tervuren), concluded that: a) Tabanus jadini Fain, 1949, is a good species, easily distinguished (by the form of the frontal callus) from T. taeniola Palisot de Beauvois, 1807, in opposition to the Oldroyd's opinion (1954); b) Tabanus gedoelsti Surcouf, 1911, shows several morphological differences regarding to T. coniformis Ricardo, 1908, entities which Oldroyd (1954) considered as synonymous; c) Among a batch of several specimens of horse-flies classified as Haematopota stimulans Austen, 1908, an appreciable part of them were better related to the H. insidiatrix Austen, 1908.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1987). "Tabanids (Diptera - Tabanidae) from some old Portuguese territories in Africa, in the collection of the Centro de Zoologia." Garcia de Orta Serie de Zoologia 14(1): 89-101.
	The author gives the results of his studies of horseflies, from several former Portuguese African territories, in the collection of the Zoological Center of the Institute of Tropical Scientific Research, Lisbon. Among the 24 taxonomic entities identified, Tabanus quadrisignatus is newly recorded from Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau) and Haematopota lewisi is newly recorded from Angola. In addition, H. angolensis sp. nov. and H. chongoroiensis sp. nov., both from Angola, are described as new. A gazetteer of collection sites, with associated tabanid species, is appended.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1988). "Contribution to the knowledge of the tabanids (Diptera-Tabanidae) of southern Africa." Garcia de Orta Serie de Zoologia 15(2): 97-124.
	The results of studies on a collection of Tabanidae held at the State Museum, Windhoek, Namibia, are described. Most of the material had been collected in Namibia (the rest came from Angola and South Africa), and some of it has already been described in 3 other papers; the collection comprises a total of 211 specimens, of 4 subfamilies, 11 genera (2 of which are considered new) and 31 species (12 of which are considered new, and 9 of which (Atylotus juditeae sp. nov., Haematopota dolondoloensis sp. nov., H. tchivinguiroensis sp. nov., Philoliche penrithorum sp. nov., P. dubiosa sp. nov., P. pamelae sp. nov., P. coetzeei sp. nov., P. irishi sp. nov. and P. chaineyi sp. nov.) are described in the present paper). A single male specimen of Tabanus sp. was not specifically identified. Besides the 10 species listed above, records of 22 other tabanids are given in this paper.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1990). "A new species of horsefly (Diptera, Tabanidae) from Guinea-Bissau, Tabanus mesquitelai, new species." Garcia de Orta Serie de Zoologia 17(1-2): 27-30.
	The Author proceeds to the description of a new species of horse-fly, from Guinea-Bissau, to which the name of Tabanus mesquitelai n. sp. was given, establishing after its differentiation regarding T. unilineatus Loew, 1852, entity only knonw in the East Africa.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1991). "Contribution to the knowledge of tabanids (Diptera-Tabanidae) from Mount Ruwenzori." Garcia de Orta Serie de Zoologia 18(1-2): 49-59.
	Four new species of Tabanidae are described from Mount Ruwenzori in Zaire: Tabanus coninckae sp. nov., Haematopota coninckae sp. nov., H. altimontana sp. nov. and H. ruwenzorii sp. nov. The male of T. ruwenzorii is described for the first time.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1994). "Discovery of a new species of the genus Tabanus Linnaeus, 1758 (Diptera - Tabanidae) for the fauna of Angola." Garcia de Orta Serie de Zoologia 20(1-2): 69-76.
	The examination of a collection of Tabanidae made in 1972 in the Dungo region of Angola revealed a new species, Tabanus rosarioi sp. nov., belonging to the ruficrus group. Both sexes are described. An identification key for females of the tropical African species of the ruficrus group, and a complete list of the 108 species of Tabanidae currently known from Angola are presented.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1996). "Contribution to the knowledge of Tabanidae (Diptera-Tabanidae) of the Central African Republic." Garcia De Orta Serie de Zoologia 21(1): 67-80.
	The Author studied a collection of Tabanidae from Centro-African Republic, as requested by two colleagues working there. Among the specimens examined, belonging to three genera (of the Subfamily Tabaninae), five new species were established (Tabanus centroafricanus n. sp., T. cuisancei n. sp., T. pseudothoracinus n. sp., Haematopota amicoi n. sp., and H. touratieri n. sp.) and two others (Haematopota denshamii Austen, 1908 and H. ochracea (Bezzi, 1908)) were referred for the first time on that territory. The definition and the morphological characterization of the new taxa were made, as well as some climato-ecological comments on all the mentioned species. At last, a list of all species, 70 in number, actually known in the Centro-African Republic, was elaborated.

Dias, J. A. T. S. (1996). "Contribution to the tabanids (Diptera-Tabanidae) of the Central African Republic." Garcia de Orta Serie de Zoologia 21(1): 67-80.
	Tabanus centroafricanus sp. nov., T. cuisancei sp. nov., T. pseudothoracinus sp. nov., Haematopota amicoi sp. nov. and H. touratieri sp. nov. are described as new. Haematopota denshamii and H. ochracea are reported for the 1st time from the Central African Republic. Other species collected were T. coniformis, T. par, T. pluto, T. thoracinus, Hippocentrum strigipenne and H. versicolor. Notes on ecology are given. A list of the 70 species of Tabanidae known from the Central African Republic is presented.

Dieguez, F. L., G. L. Rodriguez, et al. (1997). "New insects of medical importance from the northwestern keys of Camaguey: preliminary study." Revista Cubana de Medicina Tropical 49(2): 139-141.
	Twenty-seven species of insects of medical and public health importance belonging to the families Blattidae (Periplaneta americana, P. brunnea and P. australasiae), Culicidae (Aedes taeniorhynchus, A. sollicitans, A. scapularis, A. mediovittatus, Anopheles albimanus, A. crucians, Culex quinquefasciatus, C. nigripalpus, C. bahamensis, Deinocerites cancer, Psorophora pygmaea and Mansonia titillans), Muscidae (Fannia sp., Haematobia irritans and Musca domestica), Tabanidae (Tabanus lineola, T. biflocus, T. claripennis, Chrysops flavidus, C. variegata and Stenotabanus caribaeorum), Ceratopogonidae (Culicoides furens and C. barbosai) and Chloropidae (Hippelates sp.) were recorded from Megano Grande (3 species), Cruz (3 species), Romano (22 species) and Guajaba (15 species) Keys from the Camaguey province of Cuba.

Dieleman, E. F. (1986). "Trypanosomiasis in Indonesia. A review of research, 1900-1983." Veterinary Quarterly 8(3): 250-255.
	This review describes research conducted from 1900-1983 on trypanosomiasis due to
Trypanosoma evansi in Indonesia. Clinical signs andpost-mortemfindings in horses, cattle, buffaloes.
pigs and dogs, experimental transmission tests to establish possible surra vectors in Indonesia, and
research on chemotherapy and chemoprophylaxis are discussed.

Dinka, H. and G. Abebe (2005). "Small ruminants trypanosomosis in the southwest of Ethiopia." Small Ruminant Research 57: 239-243.
	A study was conducted in two valleys of the southwest Ethiopia (Didessa and Ghibe valleys) from November 2002 to April
2003 to collect baseline data on the prevalence of trypanosomosis in local breeds of sheep and goats. Blood samples from 533
randomly selected small ruminants of different species, sex and age groups were collected and examined with conventional
haematological and parasitological techniques. Among the small ruminants examined during the study period 27 animals (5.1%)
were infected with trypanosomes. Most of the infections were due to Trypanosoma congolense (46.7%, 33.3%) followed by T.
vivax (26.7%, 25.0%) and the rest was due to T.brucei (6.7%, 8.3%) and mixed infections of T.congolense and T.vivax (13.3%,25.0%), T.brucei and T.vivax (6.7%, 8.3%) in sheep and goats, respectively. There was no statistically significant difference (P> 0.05) in infection between male and female, among age groups in sheep and goats as well as valleys. Infection between sheepand goats showed significant difference (P < 0.05), the higher being 7.65% in sheep and the lower 3.56% in goats. Mean packed cell volume (PCV) value of parasitaemic animals was significantly lower than (P < 0.01) that of aparasitaemic animals. In an attempt to identify the vectors involved in the transmission of small ruminants trypanosomosis, both tsetse flies of the morsitans group (Glossina pallidipes and G. morsitans submorsitans) and palpalis group (G.fuscipes fuscipes) and mechanical vectors of trypanosomosis that belong to the tabanidae family (tabanus) were captured in the lowlands of Didessa (1400–1780m above sea level) and Ghibe (1250–1700m above sea level) valleys. The study revealed that trypanosomosis in sheep and goats is an important disease and small ruminants serve as a potential reservoir of infection for other animals.

Dipeolu, O. O. (1975). "Seasonal prevalence of flies feeding on cattle at Ibadan, Western Nigeria." Journal of the Nigerian Veterinary Medical Association 4(1): 14-20.
	In a survey of flies biting cattle at three cattle establishments in Ibadan between March 1973 and October 1974 Stomoxys nigra and S. calcitrans were found to be the most abundant. Others detected included Tabanus taeniola, T. neocopinus, Musca crassirostris and Hippobosca variegata. Flies were more numerous during the rainy season and the intensity of the early rains influenced the subsequent abundance of Stomoxys. The fly challenge to cattle was highest during the evenings and lowest in the early mornings. The risk to cattle of the preponderance of the flies in some of the sites of collection was discussed.

Dipeolu, O. O. (1976). "The biting flies in the Zoo of the University of Ibadan." East African Wildlife Journal 14(3): 229-232.
	Catches of biting flies were carried out at the Zoo of the University of Ibadan. Of 2069 flies caught between October 1973 and September 1974, 88% were Stomoxys spp., S. nigra Macq. being commoner than S. calcitrans (L.). Other important species were Ancala necopina (Aust.) (Tabanus necopinus), Tabanus taeniola P. de B., Haematobia minuta (Bez.) (Lyperosia minuta) and Musca crassirostris Stein, nearly all of which were engorged. All blood-sucking flies were most abundant in the evenings, but species of Musca were most numerous in the afternoons.

Dipeolu, O. O. (1977). "Studies on the incidence, distribution and prevalence of flies of veterinary importance in Nigeria." Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa 25(1): 33-39.
	During an investigation into the prevalence of flies of veterinary importance, insects were caught with nets and light-traps in 29 livestock establishments in Nigeria. About 60% of the flies caught were blood-suckers, and Stomoxys species were the most abundant. Tabanids were also caught in large numbers. More flies were caught in the evening than at any other period of the day. Musca spp. were the predominant non-blood-sucking flies. Others were the mysiasis producing Chrysomya bezziana Villen., C. putoria (Wied.) and Lucilia spp. A few Hypoderma bovis (L.) were found in plateau towns. A greater number of flies was caught feeding on cattle than on sheep and goats. Five main sites were utilised for breeding, and the resting sites and consisted mainly of shade. These sites functioned effectively only when they were in the vicinity of livestock pens and grazing grounds. The implications of the blood-sucking flies as possible mechanical vectors of pathogens are discussed.

Dirie, M. F., S. Bornstein, et al. (1990). "Comparative studies on Megatrypanum trypanosomes from cervids." Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 41: 198-202.
	
Dirie, M. F., K. R. Wallbanks, et al. (1989). "Camel trypanosomiasis and its vectors in Somalia." Veterinary Parasitology 32: 285-291.
	Blood samples from 3000 Somali camels (Camelus dromedarius) were examined for trypanosome infection. Of these, 160 (5.33%) were infected with Trypanosoma evansi, one (0.03%) with T. congolense and one (0.03%) with T. brucei. Camel trypanosomiasis occurred in most areas of tabanid infestation throughout the country. The tabanids Philoliche zonata and P. magretti are incriminated as the major vectors of the disease.

Dixon, J. B., R. S. Cull, et al. (1971). "Non-cyclical transmission of trypanosomiasis in Uganda. I. Abundance and biting behaviour of Tabanidae and Stomoxys." Veterinary Record 89(9): 228-233.
	Of 10 489 biting flies taken during daylight in July and August 1970 at Nkumba, near Entebbe, Uganda, 55.2% were Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), 26.8% S. nigra Macq., 6.3% Tabanus par Wlk., 4.1% S. brunnipes Grunb., 2.7% T. thoracinus P. de B., 1.4% Glossina fuscipes Newst. and 1.3% S. transvittata Villen. The hourly variations in activity of these species and their relative abundance in different types of vegetation are reported.

Djiteye, A., M. Diarra, et al. (1998). "Comparison of the efficacy of different traps and attractants for Tabanidae and Stomoxys in Mali." Journal of Protozoology Research 8(4): 263-273.
	The relative attractiveness of biconical, cubical (F3), pyramidal and Vavoua traps used with or without attractants (acetone/1-octen-3-ol, acetone/1-octen-3-ol/meta-cresol, 1-octen-3-ol/meta-cresol and acetone/1-octen-3-ol/cow urine) to Tabanidae and Stomoxys was investigated in Mali. In woody savanna, cubical, Vavoua and pyramidal traps attracted 6.4-, 5.9- and 4.2-fold more Tabanidae, respectively, than biconical traps. Vavoua traps were most efficient against Stomoxys and trapped 15.6-fold more than cubical traps, 15.4-fold more than biconical traps and 6.2-fold more than pyramidal traps. In gallery forest, cubical traps attracted 2.0-fold more Tabanidae than pyramidal traps and 4.4-fold more than biconical traps. Vavoua traps were 3-fold more efficient against Tabanidae than biconical traps and caught 2.4-, 3.2- and 12.2-fold more Stomoxys, respectively, than cubical, pyramidal and biconical traps. Tabanidae were more attracted by acetone/1-octen-3-ol/cow urine, acetone/1-octen-3-ol/meta cresol and 1-octen-3-ol/meta-cresol. In woody savanna, Stomoxys was more attracted by acetone/1-octen-3-ol/meta-cresol and 1-octen-3-ol/meta-cresol; in gallery forest it was more attracted by acetone/1-octen-3-ol and acetone/1-octen-3-ol/cow urine. It was concluded that Vavoua traps are very attractive for both tsetse flies and Stomoxys and they are recommended for trypanosomiasis vector control.

Doutoum, A. A., A. Delafosse, et al. (2002). "Vecteurs potentiels de Trypanosoma evansi chez les dromadaires au Tchad oriental." Revue d'Élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 55: 21-30.
	Eastern Chad is a camel breeding area. Trypanosoma evansi infections (surra), which are mechanically transmitted by various hematophagous biting insects, are widespread in the area. They primarily affect transhumant herds. An entomological survey was carried out in seven representative sites in order to improve the knowledge of the epidemiology of surra in the area. Four sites (Koukou Angarana and Djogori in the South, Oum Chalouba and ouaddi Fira in the North) were associated with a high prevalence of the disease, the other three (Abdi in the South, Am sak and ouaddi Fama in the North) with a low prevalence. The survey was based on the use of 5 biconical traps Challier-Laveissiere and five Nzi traps. Captures were recorded at 24 and 48h. Three series of trappings were performed to take into account seasonal variations. Various factors which could influence captures were included in a multivariate analysis. In total, 272 Stomoxyinae (stable flies), 945 Tabanidae (horse flies) and 226 hippoboscids were caught. Among horse flies, Atylotus agrestis was the most abundant species; the others were Tabanus gratus, T. taeniola and T. biguttatus. The main three stable flies identified were Stomoxys calcitrans, S. sitiens and S. niger. Most of the hippoboscids identified belonged to the Hippobosca camelina species. The main factors which explained the variability of the captures were the type of trap, the season and the latitude. The NZI trap was the most efficient trap to catch horse flies and stable flies. The best capture period was at the beginning of the dry season (November to January) for Atylotus agrestis, Stomoxyinae and Hippoboscids. Tabanus gratus was mainly captured at the end of the dry season (February to May) and during the rainy season (June to October), and Tabanus taeniola during the rainy season. The Hippoboscids were more frequently captured in the north of the study area and T. gratus and T. taeniola in the south. A correlation was found with both trap types between the number of biting insects caught during the dry season and surra prevalence. The high prevalence of surra in transhumant herds could be explained by the cumulative effect of cattle in contact with (1) the peak of A. agrestis in the North at the end of the rainy season and at the beginning of the dry season and (2) biting insects present in the transhumant reception zone of the South (November to June). An explanation for the impact of surra on short-distance transhumant and semi-sedentary herds of the North might be found in the nature itself of the area, i.e. whether or not it allows populations of hematophagous insects to be maintained during the dry season.

Downer, K. E., R. J. Nachman, et al. (2007). "Effect of seasonality and perisulfakinin on engorgement by Tabanus nigrovittatus (Diptera: Tabanidae) in the laboratory." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 100: 251-256.
	The horse fly Tabanus nigrovittatus Macquart (Diptera: Tabanidae), a hematophagous insect, is a nuisance pest along the Atlantic Coast. A description of the engorgement pattern throughout the season is lacking in the literature for this species. The percentage of flies engorging a bloodmeal in the laboratory throughout the season was recorded, and here we demonstrate that the percentage of flies that are blood feeding fluctuates, leading to a decrease in flies engorging as the season ends. Additionally, three recent nonhematophagous insect studies demonstrated that sulfakinins, a vertebrate homologue of cholecystokinin, function in feeding inhibition as a satiety factor. We found that groups of flies injected with one nanomole of perisulfakinin were inhibited from blood feeding by 45-60%. The satiation of feeding reported here is in agreement with the previous research by using nonhematophagous species. When groups of flies were injected with 10 nmol of perisulfakinin, the percentage of flies engorging was increased relative to the sham-injected flies, although not significantly. The stimulation of engorgement by sulfakinin has not previously been demonstrated, and its mode of action remains unclear.

Downer, K. E., R. J. Nachman, et al. (2007). "Factors affecting engorgement behavior in the salt marsh horse fly, Tabanus nigrovittatus Macquart (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Insect Behavior 20: 403-412.
	
Downer, K. E. S., J.G., Jr. (2006). "Effect of octenol on Engorgement by Tabanus nigrovittatus (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 43(3): 643-645.
	Adult female Tabanus nigrovittatus Macquart (Diptera: Tabanidae) were field collected from a salt marsh in Essex County, Massachusetts. The horse flies were transported back to and tested in the laboratory to determine the effects of octenol (1-octen-3-ol) on engorgement. Flies exposed to octenol strips had a significantly higher engorgement response compared with control flies. To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate an important link between an odor stimulus and the feeding response in Tabanidae. Research examining the link between odor attractants and repellents on the engorgement response is lacking or limited in most hematophagous Diptera. Understanding the role odors have on ingestion is essential to knowing how to interrupt feeding behavior of blood-feeding arthropods, especially for important vectors.

Downes, C. M., J. B. Theberge, et al. (1986). "The influence of insects on the distribution, microhabitat choice, and behavior of the Burwash caribou herd." Canadian Journal of Zoology 64: 622-629.
	
Downes, J. A. (1971). The ecology of blood-sucking Diptera: an evolutionary perspective. Ecology and physiology of parasites, Toronto, Ontario, University of Toronto Press.
	
Downes, J. A. and D. H. Kavanaugh (1988). "The post-glacial colonization of the North Atlantic Islands. Origins of the North American insect fauna." Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada 144: 55-92.
	The nature and origins of the present-day insect faunas of Greenland, Iceland and the Faeroes are discussed in relation to those of North America (NA) and Europe. The markedly warm-adapted faunas of the Early Tertiary were modified or eliminated as the climate cooled from the Oligocene to the Pleistocene glaciations. The Wisconsian glaciation peaked about 20 000 years ago, and then gave way rapidly to the arctic and cool temperate climates of the present; the North Atlantic islands thus became habitable again but separated by wide expanses of northern seas. At most only a few strongly arctic-adapted species could have persisted through the Pleistocene; no land bridges from the continents have existed since the early Miocene, 20 million years ago. Southern Greenland, Iceland and the Faeroes have been colonized across sea passages from the adjacent continents, mainly by air but partly by sea, during the post-glacial period (ca. 10 000 years). The faunas are all young, with no endemic species among ca. 2000 in all; the faunas are subarctic, mainly of the High and Low Boreal life zones, and derived from these life zones of NA or Europe. The naturally established faunas are small or very small, <14% of the corresponding continental faunas, and are disharmonic, with some groups absent across the North Atlantic, e.g. Culicidae, Tabanidae, Tachinidae, Papilionoidea, aculeate Hymenoptera (except Bombus sp.). This indicates a severe "sweepstakes" route. The lack of Tachinidae is noteworthy because their hosts are plentiful, and indicates dispersal by air, with adult Tachinidae, unlike adult Lepidoptera, unable to make the journey; dispersal by a land bridge would offer parasites and hosts an equal opportunity. Aerial transport is indicated also by the high proportion of migrant species (of Lepidoptera) in the island faunas, and the arrival in Surtsey (a new volcanic island) of almost 25% of the Icelandic fauna in 12 years. The Surtsey observations suggest that the Icelandic fauna is preadapted to aerial dispersal, by selection during its journey from Europe. The fauna of southern Greenland is derived partly from boreal America and partly from boreal Europe. The NA moiety becomes vestigial in Iceland and the Faeroes and does not reach Europe. Iceland and the Faeroes were populated from northwestern Europe, especially Britain and Scandinavia. A few species extend to southern Greenland and thence, or even directly, reach NA, and have thus completed a post-glacial traverse of the North Atlantic. The fauna of North Greenland is a high arctic fauna, nearly identical with the high arctic fauna in Canada, and thus complete, not disharmonic, though very small. It has encountered no "sweepstakes" dispersal. North Greenland is separated from high Arctic Canada only by a narrow channel which permits winter dispersal by wind across unbroken sea ice. Biologically, North Greenland is part of the NA High Arctic, and although certain species (e.g. mosquitoes and butterflies) may extend somewhat into southern Greenland, it has not contributed to the basic faunas of the North Atlantic islands. The extreme variability in wing pattern of many Lepidoptera in Iceland, the Faeroes and Shetland is commented on.

Drake, C. M. (1991). "Provisional atlas of the larger Brachycera (Diptera) of Britain and Ireland." 131 pp.
	This atlas describes the distribution of the British and Irish species of Stratiomyidae, Xylomyidae, Xylophagidae, Rhagionidae, Tabanidae, Asilidae, Therevidae, Scenopinidae, Acroceridae and Bombyliidae. It includes a summary of the types of distribution shown by these species, species accounts, a short bibliography, distribution maps of selected species, "vice-county" occurrences of species and a species index. It is emphasised that this atlas is provisional, as it is based largely on records submitted to the Biological Records Centre, Monks Wood Experimental Station (Huntingdon, UK), by amateur entomologists.

Drake-Brockman, R. E. (1910). "Notes on the blood-sucking Diptera met with in eastern and south-eastern Abyssinia." Bulletin of Entomological Research 1: 55-57.
	
Drees, B. M. (1982). "A checklist of horse flies and deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) of Cedar Bog, Champaign County, Ohio." Ohio Journal of Science 82(4): 170-176.
	Intensive collecting in Cedar Bog, Champaign County, Ohio in 1978 and 1979 using a modified Malaise trap baited with dry ice and shiny black sphere, and an aerial net, together with a review of specimens in 5 collections, produced records for 33 species of tabanids. The seasonal abundance of many of these species was described. The great diversity of species is attributed to the wide variety of breeding habitats in the area. Among natural enemies of tabanids, Telenomus tabanivorus (Ashm.) emerged from egg-masses of a tabanid, and Trichogramma minutum Ril. emerged from eggs of Chrysops.

Drees, B. M. (1987). "Mud cylinders of Tabanidae (Diptera) from Texas." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 80(1): 51-54.
	Final instars of 4 Afrotropical Tabanus species construct mud cylinders in which pupation occurs. This behaviour is believed to ensure adult survival where mud in which these species develop becomes dry and cracked during dry seasons. Evidence of construction of mud cylinders by T. atratus and possibly other species that construct similar mud cylinders is described from Texas. Differences between, and possible explanations for, the construction of Afrotropical and Texas mud cylinders are discussed.

Drees, B. M., L. Butler, et al. (1980). "Horse flies and deer flies of West Virginia: an illustrated key (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Bulletin of the Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, West Virginia University 674: 1-67.
	Tabanidae were collected intensively throughout West Virginia from 1975 to 1978. The records of these collections, together with those previously published or obtained from specimens in various private and institutiona!. collections, account for a total of 68 species and subspecies (in 9 genera) known for this state. Illustrated keys are given for the 9 genera and the species in each genus (and also for an additional 52 species that may eventually be taken in West Virginia), together with introductory notes on the Tabanidae as disease vectors, the traps and methods used for assessing abundance in 1975-78 and on the taxonomy, distribution and collection dates and localities of the species.

Duke, B. O. L. (1955). "Symposium on Loiasis. IV. The development of Loa in flies of hte genus Chrysops and the probable significance of the different species in the transmission fo Loiasis." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 49: 115-121.
	
Duke, B. O. L. (1959). "Studies on the biting habits of Chrysops VI. - A comparison of the biting habits, monthly biting densities and infection rates of C. silacea and C. dimidiata (Bombe form) in the rain-forest at Kumba, southern Cameroons, U.U.K.A." Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 53: 203-214.
	
Dukes, J. C., T. D. Edwards, et al. (1974). "Associations of Tabanidae (Diptera) larvae with plant species in salt marshes, Carteret County, North Carolina." Environmental Entomology 3(2): 280-286.
	In studies in March and April 1972, larvae of Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq., Chrysops fuliginosus Wied. and C. atlanticus Pechuman were recovered most often and in greatest abundance in regularly flooded areas of salt marshes with nearly uniform stands of Spartina alterniflora in Carteret County, North Carolina. Areas of S. cynosuroides and Distichlis spicata and Juncus roemerianus yielded decreasing numbers of Tabanid larvae. In mixed vegetation, as the proportion of other vegetation increased and that of S. alterniflora decreased, the numbers of Tabanid larvae declined.

Dukes, J. C., T. D. Edwards, et al. (1974). "Distribution of larval Tabanidae (Diptera) in a Spartina alterniflora salt marsh." Journal of Medical Entomology 11(1): 79-83.
	Larvae of Chrysops fuliginosus Wied. and Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq. were recovered from the soil of a regularly flooded salt marsh bordering the Newport River, Carteret County, North Carolina, in which Spartina alterniflora was the dominant plant. The larvae were found throughout the sampling area with no consistently greater abundance adjacent to a natural drainage ditch. The larvae were about as frequent in areas of tall as in short grass (S. alterniflora).

Dunlop, A. (1937). "The Dadessa Valley." Geographical Journal 89(6): 507-521.
	
Durand, J. R. and C. Leveque (1980). "The aquatic flora and fauna of Sahelo-Sudanese Africa, Vol. I, Vol. II." ORSTOM Collection Inititations Documentations Techniques Nos. 44 and 45: 1-389, 391-873.
	The first volume of this monograph on the flora and fauna of the Sahelo-Sudanese region of Africa, to which about 30 authors have contributed, includes an introduction giving a description of the region, with special reference to the characteristics of aquatic environments, followed by chapters on algae, aquatic plants and 12 groups of invertebrates up to and including decapod crustaceans. The second volume is devoted to the insects and vertebrates, and includes a key to the larvae and adults of the orders of insects with aquatic stages. Of the groups then dealt with, the culicids, chironomids, tabanids, ceratopogonids and simuliids are of major medical and veterinary importance and the Heteroptera, Odonata and Coleoptera include some important predators. As an introduction to the groups of Diptera, the general characters of the group are described and keys to the immature stages of the suborders and important families are provided. Notes are given on the families of lesser importance. Throughout the chapters on insects, keys are provided, usually down to family or generic level, and notes are provided on the distribution and biology of the groups.

Dusbábek, F., F. Gregor, et al. (1980). "Note on some diptera (Tabanidae, Glossinidae, Muscidae and related families) at the peak of dry season in Toro Game Reserve, Uganda." Folia Parasitologica 27(2): 165-171.
	The authors studied the occurrence of haematophagous and non-haematophagous flies in three different collecting sites in the Toro Game Reserve in western Uganda, at the dry season peak (January, February), using canopy trap and baited traps. Collected were 6 species of Tabanidae, 1 species of Glossinidae, 24 species of Muscidae, 3 species of Calliphoridae, 4 species of Sarcophagidae and 3 species of other families.

Easton, E. R. (1982). "Reduction of horse and deer flies on the Cottonwood Range and Livestock Experiment Station as a result of grazing." Journal of Economic Entomology 75(2): 292-294.
	When tabanid populations were sampled in south-western South Dakota in 1977, 1978 and 1980, Tabanus similis Macq. and Chrysops aestuans Wulp were the commonest species collected by blackball and sticky-drum traps. T. similis was commonly observed as a pest of beef cattle from June to early August, whereas C. aestuans was attracted more commonly to man during this period. Fly populations were lower in 1980 when compared with numbers found in the earlier years. It is suggested that weather conditions and grazing by beef cattle in 1979 reduced the amount of vegetation on which flies could oviposit, resulting in fewer adults caught during the 1980 season. C. sequax Will. and C. carbonarius Wlk. were also attracted to man, while collections of T. marginalis F., T. orbicallus Philip and Silvius pollinosus Will. represent new records for the state.

Easton, E. R. (1983). "The horse flies and deer flies of South Dakota. New state records and an annotated checklist (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Entomological News 94(5): 196-200.
	Collecting data are reported for 33 species of Tabanidae from South Dakota. Six species are new records for the state, and ecological data are given for them; the species are Haematopota americana O. S., Hybomitra epistates (O. S.), H. opaca (Coq.), Tabanus lineola F., T. marginalis F. and T. punctifer O. S.

Eberhard, M. L. and T. C. Orihel (1981). "Development and larval morphology of Loa loa in experimental primate hosts." Journal of Parasitology 67(4): 556-564.
	Experimental infections with Loa loa were established in laboratory primates (Papio anubis and Erythrocebus patas) by inoculation of 3rd-stage larvae recovered from either Chrysops silacea infected after engorging on a human volunteer with loaiasis, or Chrysops atlanticus infected after blood feeding on experimentally infected primates. The 3rd molt occurred 16 to 20 days after inoculation of infective larvae, and the 4th at about 50 days. Early larval development was characterized by rapid growth and marked differentiation of the reproductive systems. Differences in the body's growth rate between the sexes were seen as early as 30 days and were especialy marked by 60 days. Females grew more rapidly, and for a longer time than males. Males reach maximum size by 120 days, females not until about 300 days. Female worms were inseminated before day 90, developing eggs filled the uteri by 120 days, and microfilariae appeared in the peripheral blood at approximately 150 days. Morphological features of the larval and adult stages of human Loa loa are described. [AS]

Edwards, T. D., J. C. Dukes, et al. (1974). "Soil-washing apparatus for recovery of Tabanid larvae and other invertebrates." Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society 9(1): 32-35.
	A description and illustrations are provided for construction of a portable rack for washing salt-marsh soil and vegetation to recover Tabanid larvae and other invertebrates. A portable petrol-powered pump is used to wash the samples through wire gauze of two sizes, the water being sprayed from above and below the sample.

El Sawalhy, E., J. R. Seed, et al. (1995). "Catabolism of tryptophan by Trypanosoma evansi." Journal of Eukaryotic Biology 42(6): 684-690.
	Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, which causes human African trypanosomiasis, catabolizes the aromatic amino acid tryptophan via an initial aminotransferase catalyzed reaction to form several indole end products, which have been suggested to contribute to the pathogenesis of trypanosomiasis. To determine if this same pathway exists in T. evansi, the closely related trypanosome pathogen of domestic animals, tryptophan catabolism was examined in vitro and in vivo. As is the case with human African trypanosomes, T. evansi catabolized tryptophan to form indole-3-pyruvic acid and smaller amounts of indole-3-acetic acid and indole-3-lactic acid. Large concentrations of indole-3-pyruvic acid are excreted in urine of trypanosome-infected mice. However, indole-3-ethanol could not be detected in incubates of T. evansi or T. b. gambiense, even though the latter species had previously been reported to form this neutral metabolite. A new, previously unreported tryptophan metabolite was isolated and partially characterized from incubates of T. evansi and T. b. gambiense. Although the functional significance of tryptophan catabolism to trypanosomatids remains obscure, the pathway is quantitatively significant in all species examined thus far.

Ellis, H. C. and K. L. Hays (1973). "Population densities of tabanid larvae in two farm pond habitats in east central Alabama." Florida Entomologist 56(1): 11-14.
	Two farm ponds near Auburn, Alabama, provided habitats that supported relatively high densities of larvae of Tabanids (Tabanus and Chrysops spp.). An average of 4.02 larvae/ft2 was found in 486 1-ft2 samples from two sites. The more productive yielded an average of 4.66 larvae/ft2 in 260 1-ft2 samples. The average number of larvae/ft2 found at this site was over 2.4 times that found at Site 2. A porous substrate, which may have provided better habitats for both Tabanids and their prey species, is believed to be the best explanation of the increased survival of larvae of Tabanus spp. at that site. The presence throughout the year of larvae of various sizes of the large species of Tabanids indicated that some species may require two or more years to complete their life-cycle in east-central Alabama.

El-Ziady, S. and T. Hefnawy (1970). "Ecological studies on Tabanus taeniola P. de B. in Egypt [Diptera : Tabanidae]." Bulletin de la Société d'entomologie d'Egypte 54: 345-359.
	Field studies on the ecology of Tabanus taeniola P. de B. in Egypt [cf. preceding abstract] were carried out in Beni Suef Province 1963-64. Details are given of the climatic conditions, the flora and the fauna of the area where the fly was investigated. The dry season lasted 8-9 months, a wide variety of wild and domestic animals were present and vegetation along the numerous irrigation canals provided breeding sites. The adults of T. taeniola were typically diurnal. Adults were attracted both to dark objects and to moving ones. The normal resting places of both sexes were trees trunks and similar objects, and both males and females were observed feeding on flowers and on aphid honeydew. Adults were active between April and November. Peak numbers of adults occurred in mid June or early July, when females predominated, and in late August or mid-September, when males predominated. Peak proportions of females with mature ovaries occurred in July, with a smaller peak in mid-September.

El-Ziady, S. and T. Hefnawy (1970). "External and internal structure of the full-grown larva and pupa of Tabanus taeniola P. de B. [Diptera : Tabanidae]." Bulletin de la Société d'entomologie d'Egypte 54: 415-431.
	
Espi, E., A. Salmeron, et al. (2006). "Plastic films for agricultural applications." Journal of Plastic Film and Sheeting 22(2): 85-102.
	The most important agricultural applications of plastic films are greenhouse, walk-in tunnel and low tunnel covers, and mulching. The raw materials are usually low density polyethylene (LDPE) and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) or ethylene-butyl acrylate (EBA) copolymers for the covers and linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) for mulching. The market is explosively growing in China, and slowly growing in the rest of the world. The key properties for these applications are durability, optical (ultraviolet, visible, near infrared, and middle infrared) properties, and the antidrip or antifog effect. Recent developments in this area include UV-blocking, NIR-blocking, fluorescent, and ultrathermic films.

Esterhuizen, J. (2006). "Seasonal abundance of horse flies (Diptera : Tabanidae) from two conservation areas in northeastern KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa." African Entomology 14(2): 395-399.
	
Ezell, W. B., Jr., D. C. Sheppard, et al. (1974). "An annotated list of the Tabanidae (Diptera) of South Carolina." Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society 9(2): 91-99.
	Collections in hand nets and canopy traps (some of which were baited with carbon dioxide) of Tabanids from South Carolina yielded 113 species and subspecies representing 14 genera. Numerous new state records and geographical and temporal distribution data are included.

Fain, A. (1969). "Geographic distribution of the filaria Loa loa and of the tabanid Chrysops in the Congo and Rwanda." Annales de la Société Belge de Médecine Tropicale 49(5): 499-530.
	
Fain, A. (1970). "Note about the seasonal periodicity of Tabanidae in Africa south of Sahara." Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie Exotique 63(1): 104-106.
	
Fain, A. (1970). "Notes on the geographical distribution of the filaria Loa Loa and the tabanids of the genus Chrysops in Congo and in Rwanda. Addenda and corrigenda." Annales de la Société Belge de Médecine Tropicale 50(3): 359-360.
	
Fain, A. and P. Elsen (1981). "New Tabanidae from the Afrotropical Region (Diptera)." Revue de Zoologie Africaine 95(2): 417-424.
	The new tabanids described from the Afrotropical region are 2 species of Haematopota from Rwanda, 1 of Hybomitra from Zaire, and 1 of Jashinea from Malagasy.

Fairchild, G. B. (1956). Synonymical notes on Neotropical flies of the family Tabanidae (Diptera). Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Volume 131, Number 3. Washington, Smithsonian Institution, Publication 4225.
	
Fairchild, G. B. (1965). "Notes on Neotropical Tabanidae. VI. A new species of Lepiselaga Macq. with remarks on related genera." Psyche 72: 210-217.
	
Fairchild, G. B. (1966). "Notes on neotropical Tabanidae (Diptera). V. The species described by G. Enderlein." Journal of Medical Entomology 3(1): 1-19.
	
Fairchild, G. B. (1969). "Notes on Neotropical Tabanidae. XII. Classification and distribution, with keys to genera and subgenera." Arquivos de Zoologia, São Paulo 17: 199-255.
	
Fairchild, G. B. (1971). "A catalog of the Diptera of the Americas south of the United States. 28. Family Tabanidae." Musea de Zoologia, Universidade de São Paulo: 163 pp.
	
Fairchild, G. B. (1971). A catalogue of the Diptera of the Americas south of the United States. 28. Family Tabanidae. São Paulo, Brazil, Museu de Zoologia, Universidade de São Paulo.
	
Fairchild, G. B. (1973). "Notes on Neotropical Tabanidae (Diptera). XIV. Two new species of Tabanus from Panama and Colombia." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 75(3): 319-329.
	Study during 1967 of the species of Tabanus breeding in tidal swamps on the Pacific Coast of eastern Panama showed that at least 6 species form a closely similar group sharing the same general habitat. They range from Panama to Ecuador, though only in Panama has the habitat been explored for Tabanids. In this note, a key is given to the females of the 6 species. Two of them are described as new. Figures and comparative notes are given for all 6 species.

Fairchild, G. B. (1975). "The North American species of Silvius (Silvius) Meigen (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Florida Entomologist 58(1): 23-27.
	An isolated eastern population of Silvius gigantulus (Lw.) is described as S. g. weemsi subsp. n. from females from West Virginia and Pennsylvania, and a key to the 3 Nearctic taxa of the subgenus Silvius of Silvius and figures of them are presented.

Fairchild, G. B. (1975). "Notes on Neotropical Tabanidae: genus Philipotabanus Fchld., subgenus Mimotabanus Fchld." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 68(4): 689-694.
	Four new species of the subgenus Mimotabanus of the genus Philipotabanus are described from Colombia and Peru. The new species are figured and a key is provided for the 8 known species of the subgenus. P. annectans sp.n. and P. porteri sp.n., which are described from the females, were collected while biting mules and horses in Colombia.

Fairchild, G. B. (1976). "Notes on Neotropical Tabanidae XVI. The Tabanus trivittatus complex." Studia Entomologica 19: 237-261.
	
Fairchild, G. B. (1978). "New and little known Florida Tabanidae." Florida Entomologist 61(3): 121-138.
	As a result of net and trap collections of tabanids in Florida, a new species of Chrysops was found which is described from the adult female as C. ifasi sp.n.; males of other species of Chrysops, including C. abatus Philip and C. fulvistigma Hine, are described for the first time. Notes on status and distribution of these and another 12 species of Chrysops are given, and also new distribution records for 1 species of Hybomitra and 3 species of Tabanus. Anacimas geropogon Philip is shown to be a synonym of A. limbellatus End. Whitneyomyia beatifica var. atricorpus Philip is confirmed as a colour form. Among data on the systematic relationships of species of Tabanus, T. cayensis Fairchild is shown to be closely related to T. campechianus Tns. from Mexico.

Fairchild, G. B. (1980). "Horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) new to Florida and the United States." Florida Entomologist 63(3): 344-345.
	The results of a survey of tabanids in Florida in 1977 indicated that some species previously recorded from that state had been misidentified. One of these was recorded as Tabanus nigrescens var. atripennis Stone in 1938, since when it had not been collected from Florida; from reexamination of one of the Florida specimens the author concludes that it is actually T. aranti Hays (the bulk of the type material being from Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas). In addition, a species actually collected in Texas but housed in the Florida State Collection of Arthropods, T. pungens Wied., is recorded for the first time from the USA; it is common in tropical areas from Mexico to Argentina.

Fairchild, G. B. (1980). "Tabanidae (Diptera) from the Dominican Republic." Florida Entomologist 63(1): 166-188.
	A new species of Tabanidae from Puerto Rico, and 4 new species from the Dominican Republic, are described and illustrated. Keys are given to the species definitely recognised from the whole of the island of Hispaniola, the possible identity of 2 other species is discussed, and 2 species of Tabanus are reported from Hispaniola for the first time.

Fairchild, G. B. (1983). "Notes on Neotropical Tabanidae (Diptera) XIX. The Tabanus lineola complex." Miscellaneous Publications of the Entomological Society of America. 57: 51pp.
	The 60 specific names that have been applied to North and South American species of Tabanus with striped abdomens and banded eyes are reviewed. The group is defined, the 28 valid taxa are discussed, 2 new species are described and 6 names discarded as unrecognized or not applying to American taxa. Keys are provided to the females of all recognized taxa and to the males that are known. Head characters and eye patterns, where known, are figured for nearly all species. A list of the species considered valid and their synonyms is included as well as an alphabetical checklist.

Fairchild, G. B. (1984). "Notes on Neotropical Tabanidae (Diptera) XX. The larger species of Tabanus of eastern South America." Contributions of the American Entomological Institute 21(3): 1-50.
	Thirty-four large species of Tabanus from the Amazon Basin of South America are discussed in this taxonomic review. Keys are provided to the females and distribution maps are provided for all species. Seven species are described as new.

Fairchild, G. B. (1985). "Notes on Neotropical Tabanidae (Diptera). XVIII. The genus Leucotabanus Lutz." Myia 3: 299-331.
	A key to the females of the 17 currently recognized species of Leucotabanus is given. Synonymy, distribution and other information are discussed for each species. L. cornelianus sp. nov. is described from Ecuador, and L. pallidus syn. nov. is placed in synonymy with L. procallosus.

Fairchild, G. B. (1986). "The Tabanidae of Panama." Contributions of the American Entomological Institute 22(3): 1-139.
	A synopsis of the Tabanidae of Panama is given, including keys to genera and species. Knowledge of the geographical distribution, hosts, biting habits and seasonal distribution of each species is reviewed. A total of 152 named forms are treated, and these are distributed in 3 subfamilies (Tabaninae, Pangoninae and Chrysopinae), 5 tribes and 35 genera and subgenera.

Fairchild, G. B. (1999). "Florida Tabanidae, past, present, and future." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 405-407.
	
Fairchild, G. B. and J. F. Burger (1994). "A catalog of the Tabanidae (Diptera) of the Americas south of the United States." Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 55: 1-294.
	A total of 1172 valid species and subspecies in 65 genera is listed in this catalogue. Included with each name is its corresponding type locality as given in the original description or ascertained from subsequent study, the known distribution, the collection in which the type (or types) is deposited, and a reference to a figure or other additional aids to identification or understanding of synonymy. Also included are the locations of any paratypes when their repository is recorded as differing from that of the holotype. There are many taxonomic changes, i.e. new synonymies and new combinations.

Fairchild, G. B. and F. E. French (1999). "Keys to the genus Tabanus (Diptera: Tabanidae) of the southeastern United States." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 305-326.
	
Fairchild, G. B. and H. V. Weems, Jr. (1973). "Diachlorus ferrugatus (Fabricius), a fierce biting fly (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Entomology Circular, Division of Plant Industry, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services 139: 1-2.
	The Tabanid Diachlorus ferrugatus (F.), which occurs from Costa Rica to Mexico and in the south-eastern United States from Texas to New Jersey and has also been recorded from the Bahamas, is one of the most serious biting flies wherever it occurs. The females attack man vigorously throughout the day, particularly in cloudy conditions, in or near forest and near lakes, causing painful and persistently irritating bites. They also attack indoors. Domestic animals, including dogs, are also readily attacked in shady situations. The adults are active in Florida from March to November, with a peak in April-June. Larvae have been found in deeply shaded areas in root mats of woody plants, beneath the water surface. Deet is moderately effective in repelling the adults.

Fairchild, G. B. and R. C. Wilkerson (1986). "A review of the Neotropical genus Stypommisa (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Contributions of the American Entomological Institute 22(5): 1-61.
	The tabanid genus Stypommisa is redefined and 28 species are included. Of these 26 are keyed, the remaining 2 omitted for lack of fresh material. Twenty names associated with the genus at various times are considered synonyms, nomina nuda or belonging in other genera. Seven new species are described and figured: S. anoriensis sp. nov. from north-west Colombia; S. apicalis sp. nov. from east Peru, east Bolivia and west Brazil (Rondonia, Para and Mato Grosso); S. aripuana sp. nov. from Mato Grosso, Brazil; S. changena sp. nov. from mountains of west Panama and east Costa Rica; S. kroeberi sp. nov. from east Peru and east Bolivia; S. spilota sp. nov. from east Peru; and S. xanthicornis sp. nov. from Santa Catarina, Brazil.

Fang, Q. Q., S. McKeever, et al. (1999). "Cladistic analysis of tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) using microscopic characters of the mouthparts." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 355-366.
	
Fattig, P. W. (1946). The Tabanidae or horseflies and deerflies of Georgia. Emory University Museum Bulletin Number 4. Georgia, Emory University.
	
Faucheux, M. J. (1975). "Wounding and sensory organs of the proboscis of various tabanids: sexual dimorphism." Annales de la Société Entomologique de France 11(4): 709-722.
	Examination with the scanning electron microscope of the mouthparts of Atylotus fulvus (Mg.) (Ochrops fulvus), Tabanus bovinus L., Chrysops caecutiens (L.) and Haematopota pluvialis (L.) (Chrysozona pluvialis), showed that in the females of all 4 species, the mandibles function as files and the maxillae as saws. The epipharynx has 2 sensory papillae at its distal extremity, the composition of the sensilla differing according to the sex of the fly. The function of those of the female is probably to detect variations in temperature. In both sexes, the food canal contains 7 pairs of sensilla, the role of which is probably gustatory.

Ferreira, R. L. M., A. L. Henriques, et al. (2002). "Activity of tabanids (Insecta: Diptera: Tabanidae) attacking the reptile Caiman crocodilus (Linn.) (Alligatoridae) and Eunectes murinus (Linn.) (Bovidae) in the central Amazon, Brazil." Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 97: 133-136.
	
Ferreira, R. L. M. and J. A. Rafael (2004). "Activities of tabanids (Diptera, Tabanidae) attacking domestic duck-Cairina moschata (Linnaeus) (Aves, Anatidae), introduced in a forest area in the Central Amazon, Manaus, Brazil." Revista Brasileira de Entomologia 48(2): 283-286.
	
Fischer, O. A. (2006). "Tmavozelená barva láká ovádovité (Diptera: Tabanidae), Czech with author's translation in English: Dark green colour as an attractant for horseflies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Acta rerum naturalium 2: 51-52.
	
Fletcher, M. G., E. C. Turner, et al. (1988). "Horse-baited insect trap and mobile insect sorting table used in a disease vector identification study." Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 4(4): 431-435.
	A horse-baited trap and a mobile insect sorting table were used to conduct an arthropod survey for potential vectors of Potomac Horse Fever in southern Maryland and northern Virginia. The trap and table worked effectively for the live collection and sorting of haemophagous Diptera such as: Simulium spp., Stomoxys calcitrans, Musca autumnalis, Tabanus spp. and Chrysops spp. during the diurnal collections periods, and Culicoides spp. during the crepuscular periods. The trap was not as convenient for live collection of mosquito species during the nocturnal period. Modifications to the trap design was suggested for mosquito live trapping.

Foil, L. (1983). "A mark-recapture method for measuring effects of spatial separation of horses on tabanid (Diptera) movement between hosts." Journal of Medical Entomology 20(3): 301-305.
	
Foil, L., V. Adams, Jr., et al. (1984). "Tabanid (Diptera) populations associated with an equine infectious anemia outbreak in an inapparently infected herd of horses." Journal of Medical Entomology 21(1): 28-30.
	Seven horses positive for antibodies to equine infectious anaemia virus in the agar gel immunodiffusion test were kept with 8 test-negative horses in an isolated pasture in south Louisiana for a year. Although the positive horses exhibited no clinical signs of equine infectious anaemia, 6 of the 8 negative horses became positive during one vector season. Canopy trap surveillance revealed Hybomitra lasiophthalma as the only tabanid species present during 2 equine infectious anaemia virus transmissions in March. A high population of Tabanus lineola was present during the remaining 4 virus transmissions in July, September, and October.

Foil, L. and C. Foil (1988). "Dipteran parasites of horses." Equine Practice 10: 21-38.
	A general review is given of the Diptera associated with horses. The biology, veterinary importance and control of Tabanidae, Simuliidae, Ceratopogonidae, Culicidae, Muscidae and myiasis-producing Diptera (Cochliomyia, Hypoderma and Gasterophilus) are discussed, as is the treatment of skin diseases caused by the nematodes Habronema, Draschia and Onchocerca cervicalis.

Foil, L., D. Stage, et al. (1985). "Observations of tabanid feeding on mares and foals." American Journal of Veterinary Research 46(5): 1111-1113.
	The occurrence of tabanid feeding between mares and foals was observed. When mares and foals were observed freely moving within a pasture situation, foals had 2.43% (4 flies in 77 observations vs 297 flies in 139 observations) of the tabanid feeding occurrences of the mares. This difference in tabanid burden varied due to herd size, herd location, and tabanid species. Lower tabanid burden of foals was indicated as a practical protective mechanism against pathogenic agents mechanically transmitted by tabanids, such as equine infectious anemia virus.

Foil, L. D. (1989). "Tabanids as vectors of disease agents." Parasitology Today 5: 88-96.
	The Tabanidae are the least studied of the major dipteran pests of man and animals but active research projects on them are few, numbering no more than 50 in taxonomy and distribution, 15 in economic entomology and 5 in disease transmission. In this article, factors governing the vectorial roles of Tabanidae are discussed briefly, emphasising the reasons which make them important mechanical vectors. Recent research on tabanid transmission of viral, bacterial, protozoal and filarial pathogens, chiefly of veterinary importance, is then reviewed. These include equine infectious anaemia virus, bovine leukaemia virus [bovine/type C oncovirus], vesicular stomatitis virus, hog cholera virus [swine fever virus], Bacillus anthracis, Francisella tularensis, Anaplasma marginale, Borrelia burgdorferi, Besnoitia besnoiti, Haemoproteus metchnikovi (of turtles), Megatrypanum (of deer), Trypanosoma theileri, T. evansi and T. vivax (the latter in cattle in Colombia, transmitted by Cryptotylus unicolor), and filariae, all cyclo-developmentally transmitted: Loa loa of man and Loa of other primates (transmitted by Chrysops spp.), Dirofilaria roemeri of kangaroos (by Dasybasis spp.) and the arterial worm Elaeophora schneideri of North American ruminants (for which there is circumstantial evidence of transmission by Tabanus and Hybomitra spp.). A further 5 viral, 10 bacterial, 5 protozoal and 1 filarial pathogens of man or animals and their associated tabanid vectors are listed.

Foil, L. D. (1999). "Comparisons of modified box traps for trapping tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Louisiana." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 397-404.
	
Foil, L. D., W. V. Adams, et al. (1987). "Bloodmeal residues on mouthparts of Tabanus fuscicostatus (Diptera: Tabanidae) and the potential for mechanical transmission of pathogens." Journal of Medical Entomology 24: 613-616.
	Blood-meal residues on the mouthparts of T. fusciocostatus, which were interrupted in feeding on a pony, were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for equine IgG. The residues were estimated to be ca. 10 nl when the mouthparts were harvested and assayed immediately after feeding. This estimate is consistent with reported transmission of equine infectious anaemia virus by one adult of T. fuscicostatus from a donor with ca. 106 infective doses per ml of serum. The usefulness of this kind of study in evaluating the potential for haematophagous Diptera for mechanical transmission of pathogens is discussed.

Foil, L. D. and C. Foil (1992). Control of ectoparasites. Current therapy in equine medicine. III, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, W. B. Saunders.
	
Foil, L. D. and C. S. Foil (1990). "Arthropod pests of horses." Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian 12(5): 723-731.
	This article focuses on the arthropod pests of horses in the USA and discusses several associated problems. Pests and parasitoses discussed include Diptera (Tabanidae, Simuliidae, Culicoides, Muscidae, Gasterophilus, Culicidae, Calliphoridae, Hypoderma); lice (Bovicola and Haematopinus); fleas (Echidnophaga gallinacea); blister beetles (Epicauta); Acari (Trombiculidae, Pyemotes, Demodex, Sarcoptes, Psoroptes, Chorioptes, Ixodidae and Argasidae); habronemiasis (caused by Habronema majus, H. muscae and Draschia megastoma) and onchocerciasis (caused by Onchocerca cervicalis).

Foil, L. D., D. D. French, et al. (1989). "Transmission of bovine leukemia virus by Tabanus fuscicostatus." American Journal of Veterinary Research 50: 1771-1773.
	Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) was transmitted by horse flies, Tabanus fuscicostatus, from a cow with a lymphocyte count of 31,500/mm3 to goats and dairy calves. As few as 10 and 20 flies transmitted BLV to goats and calves respectively, but the minimal number of flies required to transmit the infection was not established. Groups of 150 and 100 T fuscicostatus transmitted BLV to beef calves from a cow with a lymphocyte count of 14,600/mm3. These results support a role for horse flies in the horizontal transmission of BLV.

Foil, L. D. and J. A. Hogsette (1994). "Biology and control of tabanids, stable flies and horn flies." Revue scientifique et technique Office internationale des Epizooties 13(4): 1125-1158.
	
Foil, L. D. and L. J. Hribar (1995). "Evaluation of tsetse attractants as baits for horse flies and deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Louisiana." Florida Entomologist 78: 129-133.
	Two experiments were conducted near Washington, Louisiana, USA, to evaluate attraction of Tabanidae to known tsetse attractants. In the 1st experiment, octenol was dispensed from reaction vials and polyethylene sachets, acetone was dispensed from a jar capped with a perforated lid, and a mixture of octenol, 3-n-propylphenol and 4-methylphenol (4:1:8) was dispensed from sachets. 14 species or species groups of tabanid flies were attracted equally to octenol, whether dispensed from reaction vials or sachets. There were no differences in numbers of tabanids attracted to 4:1:8 bait and to octenol, whether dispensed from sachets or reaction vials. Acetone was no more attractive than were control traps. In the 2nd experiment, 4:1:8, acetone, 4:1:8 + acetone (1:50), and commercially available pepper sauce (Tabasco) were compared. 9 species or species groups of tabanid flies were collected. The 4:1:8 and 4:1:8 + acetone baits were equally attractive to tabanids, whereas there were no differences among the pepper sauce, acetone, and unbaited controls. Among species observed in these trials were Tabanus fuscicostatus, T. lineola complex, T. americanus, T. proximus, T. pallidescens, T. limbatinevris and Chrysops spp.

Foil, L. D. and C. J. Issel (1991). "Transmission of retroviruses by arthropods." Annual Review of Entomology 36: 355-381.
	At the time of writing, no evidence supports the possibility of propagation of vertebrate-associated retroviruses in arthropods that would lead to amplification or biological transmission. This review presents a primer on retrovirus replication as a perspective on the possible interactions of retroviruses and insect cells. The review is arranged as follows: retrovirus replication; mechanical transmission; equine infectious anaemia virus; human immunodeficiency viruses; bovine retroviruses; feline retroviruses; Friend (murine) leukaemia virus; summary and future studies. Arthropods discussed as (possible) vectors include mosquitoes, Stomoxys calcitrans, tabanids and bedbugs.

Foil, L. D., D. J. Leprince, et al. (1990). "Controlling the impact of horse flies upon livestock." Louisiana Agriculture 34(1): 16-18.
	Research was undertaken to determine how the treatment of cattle with a pyrethroid spray would affect the feeding and reproductive ability of Tabanidae in the Thistlethwaite Wildlife Management Area (WMA) in central Louisiana. Adult Holstein cows were placed daily in portable pens at 3 sites in each of 2 areas on the WMA. One group of 3 cows served as untreated controls, while the others were sprayed with ca. 1 gallon of 0.05% fenvalerate. The feeding time of different horsefly species (Tabanus fuscicostatus, T. lineola lineola and T. pallidescens) on both groups of cows was recorded. At each station, tabanids were also collected daily in traps, preserved and later dissected. Specimens were collected for 6 days before the cows were placed in the areas and for 8 days after the cows arrived. The feeding time of the 3 species of Tabanidae was significantly lower on treated cows (reduced by 26% for T. pallidescens, 33% for T. fuscicostatus and by 39% for T. l. lineola), and the amount of blood consumed by T. fuscicostatus was significantly reduced (by 29.3%). Changes in the parity rate in the 2 areas were significant between the pretreatment and treatment periods (the number of flies that had obtained a previous bloodmeal increased by 13.3% around untreated cows and decreased by 12.5% around treated cows). It is concluded that the incidence of tabanids on cattle can be reduced by the application of a pyrethroid spray, although further studies are necessary before the impact of this type of control on horsefly populations can be fully evaluated.

Foil, L. D., D. J. Leprince, et al. (1990). "Sublethal effects and mortality of tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) induced by fenvalerate treatment of cattle." Journal of Entomological Science 25: 294-302.
	The effect of fenvalerate spray treatments of cattle upon the feeding success and survival of tabanids (Tabanus fuscicostatus, T. lineola, T. pallidescens, T. wilsoni and T. proximus) was examined in Louisiana. Holstein cows of 350-400 kg were sprayed daily with 4-6 litres of 0.5% fenvalerate water dispersible liquid at 100-200 psi, exposed in outdoor pens to tabanids between 10.30 and 20.30 h, and rinsed with water at the end of each day. There was a reduction in feeding time for tabanids feeding on treated cows, ranging from 27.4 to 38.8%. There was also a 31% reduction in engorgement weight of T. fuscicostatus. The time that flies were allowed to feed upon fenvalerate-treated steers had no significant effect upon mortality rates or knockdown percentages.

Foil, L. D., D. J. LePrince, et al. (1991). "Survival and dispersal of horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) feeding on cattle sprayed with a sublethal dose of fenvalerate." Journal of Medical Entomology 28: 663-667.
	A mark-recapture study was undertaken to determine the fate of tabanids feeding on cattle sprayed with a sublethal dose of fenvalerate. A total of 15,465 tabanids belonging to at least 17 species and five genera were marked individually; flies were divided equally between control and fenvalerate-sprayed bullocks. Data were summarized for the four most abundant species: Tabanus fuscicostatus Hine, T. lineola F., T. pallidescens Philip, and T. wilsoni Pechuman. The recapture rate of tabanids was 6.6% for the control and 3.4% for the fenvalerate treatment. When the proportion of flies predicted to die or be unaffected after feeding on the sprayed bullocks was considered, an estimated 75% of the flies exposed to a sublethal knockdown dose survived and attempted to seek a subsequent host. Dispersal of tabanids was not affected by treatment. The recapture data after the first day of marking was significantly delayed for tabanids that fed on fenvalerate-sprayed bullocks.

Foil, L. D., D. J. Leprince, et al. (1989). "Changes in the parity rate of Tabanus fuscicostatus (Diptera: Tabanidae) populations associated with controlling available hosts." Journal of Medical Entomology 26: 306-310.
	The parity rates of Tabanus fuscicostatus Hine populations were monitored at two areas of a wildlife management complex for 24 d using canopy traps baited with dry ice. Overall, 1,235 flies were dissected. Three cows placed in Area T were sprayed with 0.05% fenvalerate, and three cows placed in Area U were not sprayed. The parity rate in Area T decreased from 43.6 to 31.2% following the introduction of cattle. Conversely, the parity rate in Area U increased from 30.3 to 43.7% following the introduction of cattle. These results indicate that a segment of T. fuscicostatus populations returns to the previous location for a subsequent blood meal.

Foil, L. D., C. L. Meek, et al. (1983). "Mechanical transmission of equine infectious anemia virus by deer flies (Chrysops flavidus) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans)." American Journal of Veterinary Research 44(1): 155-156.
	Three groups of stable flies comprising 101, 100 and 52 insects were allowed to feed on a pony infected with the virulent Wyoming strain of the virus. When they were visibly engorged they were transferred to three other ponies to complete their blood meal. Six deer flies were also allowed to feed on an infected pony before transfer to another pony. One recipient pony on which stable flies were fed did not develop antibodies to virus within 100 days while the other three seroconverted within 34 days. Antibodies were detected by the agar gel immunodiffusion test.

Foil, L. D., C. L. Seger, et al. (1988). "Mechanical transmission of bovine leukemia virus by horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 25(5): 374-376.
	
Foster, C. H., G. D. Renaud, et al. (1973). "Some effects of the environment on oviposition by Chrysops (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Environmental Entomology 2(6): 1048-1050.
	When allowed a choice of 13 emergent plants in a natural situation along a lake edge near Auburn, Alabama, Chrysops spp. oviposited most frequently on Pontederia cordata. Fewer egg-masses were laid on Leersia oryzoides, Peltandra virginica and Ludwigia peploides, and still fewer on the 9 remaining plants tested. Egg-masses were deposited only on water plants that were not surrounded by other close growing vegetation.

Freeman, J. V. (1987). "Immature stages of Tabanus conterminus and keys to larvae and pupae of common Tabanidae from United States east coast salt marshes." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 80(5): 613-623.
	Examination of immature tabanids collected from salt marshes from New Hampshire to Georgia revealed 3 morphologically distinguishable species of tabanid larvae and pupae. The adult greenhead tabanids reared from larvae and pupae collected in certain New England salt marshes north of Boston are recognizable as Tabanus nigrovittatus. In the salt marsh at Leeds Point, New Jersey, and in southern salt marshes, larvae collected mainly from the muddy banks of ditches and creeks were a larger species, T. conterminus. Mature larvae could be identified with key characters located on anterior and posterior segments. Pupae could be distinguished to species by characters on the frontal plate and the pupal aster. The smallest or early instars continue to be difficult to identify. Larvae and pupae of T. conterminus are described for the first time, and keys are provided to larvae and pupae of the common salt marsh tabanids from the USA Atlantic coast.

Freeman, J. V. and E. J. Hansens (1972). "Collecting larvae of the salt marsh greenhead Tabanus nigrovittatus and related species in New Jersey: comparison of methods." Environmental Entomology 1(5): 653-658.
	Mass collections of larvae of Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq. brought to the surface by applications of dilute gamma BHC (lindane) to mowed plots [cf. RAE/B 46, 136] produced over 900 larvae between 1960 and 1963 at Leeds Point, New Jersey. These included T. nigrovittatus, T. lineola F. and a third form here called Tabanus sp. 3, a variant of T. nigrovittatus. These plots near ditch banks and on the open salt marsh yielded up to 20.6 larvae/yd2, but all died. For life-history studies and rearing to adults, drying salt-water cord grass on wire-mesh racks yielded numerous uncontaminated larvae. Larvae of Tabanus sp. 3 were collected by digging with a horticultural hand weeder at rates up to 17 larvae/man-hour in the ditch bank habitat. Collections by a flotation method produced 7 to 11 larvae/yd2 but injury to larvae was evident. Ladder transects across ditch banks onto open salt marsh showed that Tabanus sp. 3 dominated the ditch banks and that typical larvae of T. nigrovittatus are primarily inhabitants of the open, shorter-grass salt marsh [cf. 59, 128].

Freeman, J. V. and A. W. Thomas (1999). "Tabanus conterminus and T. nigrovittatus (Diptera: Tabanidae): Distinguishing sibling species of greenheads in New England and the Canadian Maritimes." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 223-237.
	
Freeman, T. N. (1953). "Interim report of the distribution of the Tabanidae obtained in the Northern Insect Survey." Defense Research Board of Canada Environmental Protection Technical Report 4.
	
French, F., E,, R. Whitcomb, F,, et al. (1990). Tabanid spiroplasmas of the southeast USA: new groups, and correlation with host life strategy. Recent advances in mycoplasmology. Proceedings of the 7th Congress of the International Organization for Mycoplasmology, Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Supplement 20, Baden near Vienna.
	During 1986 and 1987, 50/139 Tabanidae collected in Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina and Pennsylvania were found to be infected with spiroplasmas. As determined by microscopic examination of host fluids, 13 of these spiroplasmas were not cultivable. Most cultivable spiroplasmas were isolated rom the gut, rather than the blood, of the host. Strains that differed from all 23 known groups were isolated from the Tabanus abdominalis/limbatinevris group, T. atratus, T. lineola and T. sulcifrons. No attempts were made to isolate mollicutes from tabanid larvae, but it is suggested that larvae (the overwintering stage of tabanids) may be susceptible to infection. A checklist of tabanid species, locality, spiroplasma carriage and group of spiroplasma represented is provided.

French, F. E. and D. V. Hagan (1995). "Two-tier box trap catches Chrysops atlanticus and C. fuliginosus (Diptera: Tabanidae) near a Georgia salt marsh." Journal of Medical Entomology 32: 197-200.
	A new two-tier box trap designed for collecting Chrysops was tested on St. Simons Island, GA. The bottom box was constructed of plywood 1.2 m wide with the sides painted flat black on the outside and glossy off-white on the interior. The upper box was of similar construction, but painted glossy off-white. The bottom edge of the lower box was 0.6 m above the ground, and the bottom edge of the upper box was 1.8 m above the ground (0.6 m above the top of the lower box). In some trials, a glossy black beach ball was suspended below the center of the box and 1-octen-3-ol was dispensed midway between the boxes. Significantly more Chrysops fuliginosus Wiedemann and C. atlanticus Pechuman were collected in the upper box than in the lower box. A glossy spherical target and the presence of 1-octen-3-ol increased the catch of C. atlanticus in the upper box.

French, F. E. and D. L. Kline (1989). "1-octen-3-ol, an effective attractant for Tabanidae (Diptera)." Journal of Medical Entomology 26: 459-461.
	In Georgia, USA, the effectiveness of the canopy trap for female Tabanidae was increased significantly when 1-octen-3-ol was used as an attractant. There was a 3-fold increase in the number of tabanids captured by traps with octenol (12.8±2.1 females/trap) vs. unbaited traps (3.7±1.2 females/trap), and with dry ice plus octenol (72.1±9.7 females/trap) vs. traps with dry ice alone (24.7±2.6 females/trap). There was also a significant increase in number of species in collections from traps with dry ice plus octenol (9.8±0.9 species/trap) vs. traps with dry ice alone (6.2±0.9 species/trap). Tabanus molestus constituted 69.8% and T. melanocerus 8.0% of the 1038 tabanids collected.

French, F. E., R. F. Whitcomb, et al. (1997). "Spiroplasma lineolae sp. nov., from the horsefly Tabanus lineola (Diptera: Tabanidae)." International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 47(4): 1078-1081.
	Spiroplasma strain TALS-2T from the viscera of the striped horsefly, Tabanus lineola, collected in Georgia was serologically distinct from other Spiroplasma species, groups, putative groups, and subgroups. Light and electron microscopy of cells of strain TALS-2T revealed helical motile cells surrounded only by a single cytoplasmic membrane. The organism grew in M1D and SP-4 liquid media. Growth also occurred in 1% serum fraction medium and in conventional horse serum medium. Growth in liquid media was serum dependent. The strain passed through 220-nm filter pores, but was retained in filters with 100-nm pores. The optimum temperature for growth was 30 degrees C. Multiplication occurred at temperatures from 20 to 37 degrees C, with a doubling time at the optimum temperature of 5.6 h in M1D broth. Strain TALS-2T catabolized glucose but hydrolyzed neither arginine nor urea. The guanine-plus-cytosine content of the DNA was 25 +/- 1 mol%. The genome size was 1,390 kbp. Six isolates serologically similar to strain TALS-2T were obtained from the same host in coastal Georgia. Three strains closely related to strain TALS-2T were isolated from the horsefly Poeciloderas quadripunctatus in Costa Rica. Strain TALS-2T (= ATCC 51749), a representative of group XXVII, is designated the type strain of a new species, Spiroplasma lineolae (Mollicutes: Entomoplasmatales).

Fretey, J. (1989). "Diurnal or nocturnal attacks of leatherback turtles by Tabanidae and other hematophagous Diptera in French Guiana and Suriname." Entomologiste 45(4-5): 237-244.
	For the first time attacks of adult female Sea Turtles by blood eating Diptera while on land during nesting are indicated. Amongst these insects 6 species of Tabanides (Tabanus dorsiger dorsovittatus, T. importunus, T. olivaceiventris, T. nebulosus, Cryptotylus unicolor, Chlorotabanus mexicanus) have been enumerated. The shape and colour of Leatherback turtles perhaps explains the attraction of horse Flies.

Friend, W. G. (1991). "Feeding behaviour of the horsefly Tabanus nigrovittatus (Diptera: Tabanidae): effects of dissolved solids on ingestion and destination of sucrose or ATP diets." Physiological Entomology 16: 35-45.
	Wild caught females of T. nigrovittatus were fed solutions containing either sucrose or ATP as a phagostimulant. The sucrose diets were presented as free liquids at room temperature. The ATP in the other diets was dissolved in 0.15 M NaCl, or in 0.3 M or 1 M cellobiose, and was presented covered with a Parafilm membrane at 38°C. The content of dissolved solids in some diets was adjusted with added cellobiose, which had no phagostimulatory effect. Diets of 1 M or 0.6 M sucrose were ingested in large amounts and were directed to the crop. Diets of 0.3 M or 0.1 M sucrose induced lower levels of ingestion, and the diet was directed to the midgut. The addition of cellobiose to give a 1 M total concentration of dissolved solids in these sucrose diets induced many insects responding to the lower concentrations of sucrose to direct the diet to the crop. Diets of ATP in saline or in 0.3 M cellobiose were directed to the midgut. ATP in 1 M cellobiose caused many of the insects to put the diet in both the crop and the midgut. Two behavioural models are presented that integrate interactions between the level of phagostimulation, the concentration of dissolved solids, and an endogenous feeding factor. The dissolved solids effect is most likely a response to osmotic pressure.

Friend, W. G. and J. G. Stoffolano, Jr. (1983). "Feeding responses of the horsefly, Tabanus nigrovittatus, to phagostimulants." Physiological Entomology 8(377-383).
	In studies in the USA, wild-caught adults of Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq. were presented with solutions of 0.15 M NaCl at 37°C containing various concentrations of ATP, ADP, AMP, adenosine, phytic acid or 2,3-diphosphoglycerate, in an artificial feeding apparatus. The insects fed upward through a Parafilm M membrane. ADP (ED50 35 µM) was more potent than ATP (ED50 112 µM) and AMP (ED50 382 µM). All of these diets were deposited in the mid-gut, an indication that the flies were in the 'blood feeding' mode. Adenosine caused only 23% gorging at 1 mM. Phytic acid caused only 10% gorging at 1 mM and 2,3-diphosphoglyceric acid had no activity at 0.6 mM. Flies would feed only in highly reflective cages under high levels of light intensity (1200-1500 lux) at the membrane surface.

Friend, W. G. and J. G. Stoffolano, Jr. (1984). "Feeding responses of the horsefly, Tabanus nigrovittatus, to physical factors, ATP analogues and blood fractions." Physiological Entomology 9: 395-402.
	Wild-caught females of Tabanus nigrovittatus were presented with solutions of 7 analogues of ATP in 0.15 M NaCl, or various blood fractions, either as free liquids at 22 or 38°C or covered with a Parafilm M membrane at 38°C. Warming the diet, so that it could stimulate the insects' heat receptors, or presenting it warmed and covered with a membrane, which the flies could pierce and thus deploy their mouthparts as they would when blood-feeding, enhanced the response to gorging stimulants. ADP (ED50 45 µM) was the most potent chemical phagostimulant. There were mo significant differences between the potencies of AMP, A(TETRA)P, AMP-PCP, AMP-PNP or AMP-S, which were 3.5-5 times less potent than ADP. Cyclic AMP had no phagostimulatory activity at concentrations of 400 or 1000 µM. The ED50 for washed red blood cells (RBC) in saline was 4.5% (one-tenth the concentration found in blood). RBC-free plasma caused only 10% gorging, but plasma with 0.5% RBC caused 61% gorging, indicating synergism between RBC and plasma.

Friend, W. G. and J. G. Stoffolano, Jr. (1990). "Feeding responses of the horsefly, Tabanus nigrovittatus (Diptera: Tabanidae) to purinergic phagostimulants." Journal of Insect Physiology 36: 805-812.
	Each year in late June, 1982-1986, the phagostimulatory potencies of purinergic compounds (ATP and derivatives of ATP) were tested on wild-caught female Tabanus nigrovittatus. In all, 15 compounds were investigated. They were dissolved in 0.15 M sodium chloride solution and presented at 37 degree C in an artificial feeding apparatus in which the flies fed upward through a Parafilm M membrane. Potencies ranked, ATP gt ADP gt 2'dATP gt ATP-gamma-S = 2'dADP gt AMP-PCP = AtetraP gt AMP-PNP = 2'3'dd-ATP = AMP = APS. 3'dATP, Ara-ATP, and Ado were very weak phagostimulants and c-AMP induced no gorging at l mM. Previous work that reported ADP gt ATP was an error. The average ED-50 for ATP is 21.2 mu-M and ADP is 39.3 mu-M. Any changes in the phosphate chain of ATP caused a significant reduction in potency. Removal of the oxygen at the 3' position on the ribose reduced potency much more than its removal at the 2' position. Substitution of solvents other than the sodium chloride solution changed ED-50 values for ATP and ADP. Addition of 5% bovine albumin and 10 mM sodium bicarbonate to the 0.15 M sodium chloride increases the potency of ATP nearly 3-fold and the potency of ADP by more than 7-fold. ADP dissolved in choline chloride was as potent as ADP in sodium chloride solution. Addition of calcium ions to the solvent reduced the potency of ADP, probably because of the activation of apyrase enzymes. The potency of ADP was determined each year as an indicator of seasonal variability. Its ED-50 values ranged from 33.3 mu-M in 1982 to 45.7 mu-M in 1983. June 1985 was unusually cold and the ED-50 value for ADP was 92.7 mu-M. Data from 1985 were segregated from the other data. Seasonal effects must be considered when field-collected insects are used.

Gabova, E. N. (1976). "The fauna and biology of horse-flies (Diptera, Tabanidae) of the Komi ASSR." Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie 55(2): 311-318.
	From his own observations and the literature, the author records 33 species and two subspecies of tabanids from the Komi Republic in the USSR; 30 are from the middle taiga zone (from which only 10 had previously been reported), 24 from the northern taiga (where only 21 had been known) and 20 from the far north (where only 12 had been known). Only 12 were found in the southern taiga. The species most characteristic of the middle taiga were Hybomitra bimaculata Macq., H. lundbecki Lyneborg and Haematopota pluvialis (L.), while those of the northern taiga were Hybomitra kaurii Chvala & Lyneborg (Tabanus borealis auct.), H. lundbecki, Chrysops nigripes Zett. and C. caecutiens (L.). In the middle taiga, flight began in the first half of June and lasted about 60 days. In the far north, it began in late June and lasted about 36 days. In these two areas, mass flight occurred from late June to August and in the whole of July, respectively. In the middle taiga, daily flight lasted about 15 h in July. The tabanids are so numerous in most areas of the republic that control measures to protect man and domestic animals from attack are essential.

Ganeva, D. J. (2004). "Analysis of the Bulgarina tabanid fauna with regard to its potential for epidemiological involvement." Bulgarian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 7: 1-8.
	
Gardiner, P. R. (1989). "Recent studies of the biology of Trypanosoma vivax." Advances in Parasitology 28: 229-317.
	
Gasparich, G. E., K. J. Hackett, et al. (1998). "Serologic and genomic relatedness of group XIV spiroplasma isolates from a lampyrid beetle and tabanid flies: an ecologic paradox." International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 48(1): 321-324.
	Spiroplasma Group XIV strain EC-1T and other isolates from the lampyrid beetle Ellychnia corrusca (from Maryland, USA) form a serogroup with tabanid spiroplasma strains (TC-1 and TS-1) (from Tabanus calens and T. sulcifrons in Maryland). It was hypothesized that similarities among these strains reflect a transmission cycle in which lampyrid beetles serve as overwintering hosts and tabanid adults become infected and transmit a homogeneous population of spiroplasma strains during spring, summer and autumn. In this study, variations in restriction fragment length patterns suggested the presence of multiple genovars. Genotypic analysis may therefore be a companion to serology in elucidating spiroplasma diversity, and may provide clues to strain host range.

Gasparich, G. E., C. Saillard, et al. (1993). "Serologic and genomic relatedness of Group VIII and Group XVII spiroplasmas and subdivision of spiroplasma Group VIII into subgroups." International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 43(2): 338-341.
	Spiroplasmas are currently classified in a group system. Criteria for separation of the 24 currently designated groups include serologic relatedness, polyacrylamide gel electrophoretic patterns of proteins, guanine-plus-cytosine base ratios, and, in some cases, DNA-DNA homology. The analysis of DNA-DNA homology and serologic data from a large array of strains recently discovered in dipteran insects reveals that Group VIII strain EA-1 from a syrphid fly (Eristalis arbustorum, collected in Maryland, USA), strain TAAS-1 from a horse fly (Tabanus atratus, in Texas), and Group XVII strain DF-1 from a deer fly (Chrysops sp., in Maryland) belong to a large complex (supergroup) of strains with various degrees of interrelatedness. Strains DF-1 and EA-1 share DNA-DNA homology of 33-48% (high-stringency conditions), while strain TAAS-1 shares 42-67% homology with DF-1 and EA-1. The strains had temperature optima of 30-37°C, but the temperature minima and maxima reflected the geographic region of strain origin. These 3 strains also share G+C values of about 30 mol%, utilize arginine, and tend to grow in culture to very high titres (1011 cells per ml). The helical cells of these strains are smaller than those of other spiroplasmas and readily pass through filter pores of 22 nm. This data supports the taxonomic placement of the biotypes represented by strains EA-1, DF-1 and TAAS-1 into one supergroup, Group VIII, with subgroups designated as VIII-1, VIII-2 and VIII-3, respectively. It is proposed that Group XVII remain vacant.

Gaugler, R. and S. Schutz (1989). "Environmental influences on hovering behavior of Tabanus nigrovittatus and T. conterminus (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Insect Behaviour 2(6): 775-786.
	Hovering aggregations of males of T. nigrovittatus and the sibling species T. conterminus were observed on salt marshes in southern New Jersey. Males of T. nigrovittatus hovered over expanses of short marsh grasses, while T. conterminus hovered over tidal creeks and near other prominent landmarks. T. nigrovitattus exhibited 2 distinct daily hovering periods. The timing of these periods varied daily but showed a strong negative correlation with ambient temperature. A principal-components analysis identified a combination of ambient temperature, black-body temperature and light intensity as most predictive of hovering onset. T. conterminus hovered during a time period which was generally intermediate to the 2 hovering periods of T. nigrovitattus. Temporal partitioning of hovering "windows" may represent a premating isolating mechanism.

Gemade, E. I. and O. O. Dipeolu (1983). "Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites and urinary schistosomiasis and biting insects in an area of endemic onchocerciasis in Benue State on Nigeria." International Journal of Zoonoses 10(1): 53-58.
	Investigation carried out in an area of Benue State which had been found to be endemic for onchocerciasis showed that the area was also endemic for intestinal parasites especially hookworm, ascariasis and amoebiasis. 67% of the 1538 stools examined carried helminth eggs and/or protozoan cysts and 15% of the 685 urine specimens examined possessed ova of S. haematobium. Incidence of hookworm infection ascariasis and schistosomiasis was higher in the younger age groups (1-30 years) while that of amoebiasis was higher in the older age groups. Insects caught while biting humans include Tabanus, Haematopota, Stomoxys, Glossina and Culicoides species, a substantial preportion of which was engorged with fresh blood.

Geoffroy, B. and J. P. González (1979). "Description of the male of Thaumastocera cervaria Seguy, 1935 (Diptera, Tabanidae) of Central Africa." Cahiers ORSTOM, séries Entomologie médicale et Parasitologie 17(1): 43-45.
	Catches of adults of Thaumastocera cervaria Seguy at ultraviolet light in the forest zone in the south of the Central African Republic in 1979 included not only 2 females but also 3 specimens of the previously unknown male, which is now described and distinguished from the female [see RAE/B 24, p. 64].

Gibson, G. and S. J. Torr (1999). "Visual and olfactory responses of haematophagous Diptera to host stimuli." Medical and Veterinary Entomology 13: 3-23.
	Key biotic and environmental constraints on the host-orientated behaviour of haematophagous Diptera are summarized. For each major group of biting Diptera (Glossinidae, Muscidae, Tabanidae, Culicidae, Ceratopogonidae, Phlebotominae and Simuliidae) responses to host stimuli are reviewed, including activation and ranging behaviour, long-range and short-range olfactory responses and visual responses. Limitations to the comparison of results between groups of species, and the practical problems of experimental method and equipment are discussed.

Glasgow, J. P. (1946). "The seasonal abundance of blood-sucking flies in a grassed woodland area in central Tanganyika." Journal of Animal Ecology 15: 93-103.
	
Gojmerac, W. L. and E. C. Devenport (1971). "Tabanidae (Diptera) of Kegonsa State Park, Madison, Wisconsin: Distribution and seasonal occurrence as determined by trapping and netting." Mosquito News 31(4): 572-575.
	
Goldblatt, P., P. Bernhardt, et al. (2000). "Adaptive radiation in pollination mechanisms in Ixia (Iridaceae: Crocoideae)." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 87: 564-577.
	Field observations, floral dissections, and pollen load analyses of insects captured on 20 species of Ixia (Iridaceae), representing examples of the four major floral types in the genus, indicate that this southern African genus of 52 species is cross pollinated by a wide variety of insects. The pollination ecology of Ixia species can be divided into several distinct systems exploiting insects of four insect orders (Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, and Lepidoptera). Ixia atrandra, I. curta, I. lutea, I. maculata, I. metelerkampiae, and I. versicolor have salver-shaped, nectarless flowers, in bright colors contrasting with dark "beetle marks" and are pollinated exclusively by hopliine scarab beetles. Four Ixia species with narrowly tubular flowers, spreading tepals, and ample nectar are pollinated by long-proboscid flies (Moegistorhynchus longirostris and Philoliche species). Three additional species with tubular flowers, and modest nectar volumes, appear to be pollinated by the pieriid butterfly, Colias electo (Ixia orientalis), or by a combination of hopliine beetles and tabanid flies with short probosces (I. aurea, I. esterhuyseniae, I. tenuifolia). The remaining species are largely pollinated by anthophorine bees or Apis mellifera, but bee pollination comprises three discrete systems. Species pollinated by Anthophora and Pachymelus species (I. capillaris, I. latifolia, I. odorata, I. rapunculoides, I. thomasiae) have cup-shaped flowers that secrete nectar. Salver-shaped flowers of I. flexuosa secrete no nectar, but are pollinated by pollen-collecting Apis mellifera. Buzz pollination by Amegilla fallax in I. scillaris is associated with vertical floral presentation, nectarless flowers, unusual in having a short, closed perianth tube, short, stubby filaments, and anthers dehiscing incompletely from the base. Outgroup comparison suggests that the ancestral pollination system in Ixia is the one in which flowers are cup-shaped, produce nectar, and are pollinated by large anthophorine bees. Exaggeration of the perianth into an elongate tube containing ample nectar, or the closure of the perianth tube and absence of nectar, or the development of basal anther dehiscense must be regarded as specialized adaptations related to their derived pollination strategies.

Goldblatt, P. and J. C. Manning (1996). "Phylogeny and speciation in Lapeirousia subgenus Lapeirousia (Iridaceae: Ixioideae)." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 83(3): 346-361.
	A cladistic analysis of southern African subgenus Lapeirousia, one of two subgenera of the exclusively African genus Lapeirousia, yielded four equally parsimonious trees, one of which is identical with the strict consensus tree. Characters used in the analysis included growth form, corm morphology, a range of floral characters, and capsule and seed features, not before known to vary significantly in this genus. The analysis suggested some surprising evolutionary changes. Notable among these is an apparent reversal of perianth tube length from extremely long to short, a shift corresponding to a change from pollination by long-tongued flies and sphinx moths to pollination by bees and noctuid moths. Another unusual change is a shift in floral organization from zygomorphy to actinomorphy correlated with an acaulescent growth form. The reconstructed phylogeny is used here to assess character evolution and patterns of speciation by comparison of species in terminal clades in the cladograms. The resulting comparisons suggest that speciation in the subgenus is either allopatric or the result of microgeographic differentiation and ecological diversification stimulated by edaphic diversity. Despite the variety of floral forms and pollination syndromes in the subgenus there is no evidence of sympatric or pollinator-driven speciation. Prepollination reproductive isolation appears to be achieved by shifts in pollination syndromes between sphinx moths, two guilds of long-tongued flies, and bees. The remarkable floral divergence that has resulted appears to be a consequence of selection for repeated entry into preexisting pollination guilds. The most important of these pollination guilds are two long-tongued fly guilds in which either Prosoeca (Nemestrinidae) or Moegistorhynchus (Nemestrinidae) and Philoliche (Tabanidae) are pollinators. These two guilds are also likely to have been important in promoting speciation in other genera and families in the southern African flora.

Goldblatt, P. and J. C. Manning (1999). "The long-proboscid fly pollination system in Gladiolus (Iridaceae: Ixoideae)." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 86: 758-774.
	Pollination strategies of Gladiolus, one of the largest genera of the monocot family Iridaceae, are unusually diverse and involve various bee species, foraging either for nectar or for pollen, or moths, a large butterfly, passerine birds, and long-proboscid flies foraging for nectar. The latter system has been demonstrated for 16 species of Gladiolus of diverse taxonomic affinities. These species are primarily or exclusively pollinated by flies with elongate mouthparts. All have similar flowers with a slender, elongate perianth tube, mostly 25-50 mm long, a white to cream or pink perianth, usually marked with pink or red nectar guides on the lower tepals, and lack floral odor. The flowers produce ample quantities of sucrose-rich to sucrose-dominant nectar of moderate sugar concentration. Each of these species is pollinated by one or two species of flies of the families Tabanidae or Nemestrinidae, which have mouthparts usually 20-60 mm long, exceptionally to 80 mm in Moegistorhynchus longirostris. An important aspect of long-proboscid fly-pollination systems is the formation of guilds in which a number of species of plants of different genera and families have similar flowers and utilize the same pollinator. In these guilds pollen placement on the pollinator's body is fairly precise, and different members of a guild at any site use different parts of the pollinator's body for pollen transport. An additional 13 species of southern African Gladiolus have flowers conforming to those pollinated by long-proboscid flies and are thus inferred to have this pollination strategy. These species extend from the southern African winter-rainfall zone in the southwest to the Drakensberg Mountains of the eastern half of the subcontinent and flower at precisely the times that long-proboscid flies are on the wing, mostly late spring in the west (mid September to November) or late summer in the east (February to April). An autumn-flowering guild using a different fly species occurs in the southern part of the winter-rainfall zone. The taxonomic relationships of Gladiolus species pollinated by long-proboscid flies are diverse, with these 29 species falling in six of the seven sections of the genus occurring in southern Africa, and the pollination system appears to have evolved independently in each section.

Goldblatt, P. and J. C. Manning (2000). "The long-proboscid fly pollination system in southern Africa." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 87(2): 146-170.
	Some 14 species of long-proboscid flies (Diptera) in two families, Nemestrinidae and Tabanidae, with elongated mouth parts are known to pollinate species in several plant families, most importantly Geraniaceae, Iridaceae, and Orchidaceae, across southern Africa. Long-proboscid fly pollination appears to comprise three discrete guilds of flies in the genera Prosoeca, Moegistorhynchus, and Stenobasipteron (Nemestrinidae) and Philoliche (Tabanidae). Flies in the three guilds are on the wing at different times of the year and pollinate different suites of plant species, sometimes with different floral characteristics. The three pollinator guilds operate for the most part in different parts of the subcontinent. Where there is geographical overlap, the periods of activity differ. Plants pollinated by long-proboscid flies have flowers with an elongate, cylindrical floral tube, mostly 35-60 era long, a perianth of specific colors and marking, a floral reward of nectar, and lack floral fragrance. Pollen is not eaten by these flies, and anthers and pollen are often cryptically colored. Flowers are usually zygomorphic and bilabiate, and the petal or tepal lobes have characteristically shaped nectar guides. With few exceptions, the flowers offer ample nectar of sugar concentration mainly in the 20-30% range. Several orchids and one Pelargonium using long-proboscid flies for pollination offer no nectar, and pollination is accomplished through floral mimicry and deception. In long-proboscid fly pollination systems, placement of pollen on the insect's body is highly specific, and there are at least six mutually exclusive sites of pollen deposition on an insect's body. When two or more long-proboscid-fly-pollinated plant species co-occur, each typically utilizes a different pollen deposition site. This suggests that pollen contamination is detrimental to reproductive success and that differential pollen deposition sites are important for plants pollinated by long-proboscid flies. Since these flies are the sole or main pollinators of at least 120 plant species and the inferred pollinators of at least 80 more species in southern Africa, they must be considered keystone species in the ecosystems where they occur.

Goldblatt, P., J. C. Manning, et al. (1995). "Pollination biology of Lapeirousia subgenus Lapeirousia (Iridaceae) in southern Africa; floral divergence and adaptation for long-tongued fly pollination." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 82(4): 517-534.
	Lapeirousia subg. Lapeirousia (Iridaceae) consists of 21 species endemic to sub-Saharan Africa, with the Mediterranean southwestern part of southern Africa the center of diversity. Analysis of the floral ecology of 19 species shows that the majority secrete large amount of sucrose-rich or sucrose-dominant nectar, and the 16 species for which pollinator observations were obtained are cross-pollinated exclusively by insects with elongated mouth parts representing three orders (Diptera, Hymenoptera, and Lepidoptera). In the absence of pollinators, at least four species (L. arenicola, L. jacquinii, L. oreogena, L. simulans) were found to set seed without cross pollination and are assumed to be mechanically autogamous. The 20 species segregate into three pollination types based on divergent patterns of pigmentation, scent production, perianth tube length, and pollinator taxa. Species with flowers of the L. silenoides-type are pollinated exclusively by Proseca species (Diptera: Nemestrinidae), and species with flowers of the L. fabricii-type are pollinated exclusively by Moegistorhynchus longirostris (Diptera: Nemestrinidae) and Philoliche gulosa (Diptera: Tabanidae). The latter two fly species, together with the Prosoeca species, have the longest mouth parts of all pollinators examined on species of subgenus Lapeirousia. The L. divaricata-type flower is pollinated by a combination of bees., mostly female Anthophoridae (e.g., Anthophora, Amegilla, Tetraloniella) and native Apis mellifera (Apidae), and to a lesser extent by bombyliid flies and some Lepidoptera. Observations of insect pollen load analysis suggest that the evolution of these three flower types has encouraged ethological isolation between species, but is a small component in broader pollination guilds encompassing co-blooming species in other genera and families, including Asteraceae, Geraniaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Sterculiaceae. Mapping of pollination syndromes on a phylogenetic tree of subgenus Lapeirousia demonstrates the extreme adaptive radiation in the subgenus and the convergent development of the same pollination strategy repeatedly across the subgenus.

Goldblatt, P., J. C. Manning, et al. (1998). "Adaptive radiation of bee-pollinated Gladiolus species (Iridaceae) in southern Africa." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 85(3): 492-517.
	Observations on the flowers of 45 of 166 species of southern African Gladiolus (in sects. Blandus, Densiflorus, Hebea, Heterocolon, Homoglossum, Linearifolius, Ophiolyza) show that 42 species are pollinated largely by polylectic bees in the family Apidae, 2 species by bees of the families Andrenidae or Halictidae, and 1 by a combination of hopliine beetles (Scarabaeidae) and Andrenidae. The floral phenology, attractants, diversity of floral foragers, and sometimes the rewards, vary according to geography and are not correlated with taxonomy. Flowering in most Gladiolus species in the southern African winter-rainfall zone coincides with the end of the wet season, August to October, but a few flower from February to April at the end of the dry season. They have sweetly fragrant flowers with a wide range of colors and markings. These species receive a diversity of floral foragers including bees in the genera Allodape, Amegilla, Andrena, Anthophora, Apis, and Pachymelus. Most Gladiolus species of the summer-rainfall zone flower from December to April, from the middle to the end of the wet season, but a few species bloom from August to November, at the end of the dry season. Their flowers have no discernible fragrance and are colored mostly in shades of pink to mauve or white. Most floral foragers collected on these species were bees in the genus Amegilla, but other bee genera, as well as flies in the genera Prosoeca and Stenobasipteron, were captured. Among the southern African species of Gladiolus pollinated by bees, there are two distinct pollination strategies. The majority have bilabiate, "gullet" flowers or 'flag" flowers that secrete sucrose-rich nectar at the base of an obliquely funnel-shaped floral tube 9-20 mm long with the lower, narrow part 5-15 mm long. Apis mellifera and large-bodied anthophorine bees (especially Amegilla and Anthophora) contact dehiscent anthers and/or receptive stigmas while probing the tube for nectar with elongated probosces. In contrast, G. brevitubus, G. quadrangularis, and G. stellatus have rotate, actinomorphic (or subactinomorphic) perianths offering little or no nectar at the base of tubes less than 7 mm long. Andrena species or Apis mellifera contact both dehiscent anthers and receptive stigmas of G. stellatus or G. quadrangularis, respectively, while foraging for pollen. An additional 53 Gladiolus species also have bilabiate, gullet or flag flowers with obliquely funnel-shaped tubes 920 mm long (the most common flower type in the genus), and are presumed also to be adapted for pollination by long-tongued anthophorine and honey bees. The actinomorphic, rotate floral form is present in 2 more species. Thus, 60% of the Gladiolus species in southern Africa may be regarded as being pollinated by bees, and the overwhelming majority of these species (95%) have gullet or flag flowers and are visited primarily by long-tongued anthophorine bees that are foraging for nectar. The remaining species of Gladiolus in southern Africa have flowers with elongate perianth tubes and are adapted for pollination by sunbirds or insects other than bees, most importantly long-tongued flies (Nemestrinidae, Tabanidae), moths, and the large satyrid butterfly, Aeropetes.

Golini, V. I. and R. E. Wright (1978). "Relative abundance and seasonal distribution of Tabanidae (Diptera) near Guelph, Ontario." Canadian Entomologist 110(4): 385-398.
	The results are presented of a survey of tabanids in 4 habitats near Guelph, Ontario, in 1971-73, using traps baited with carbon dioxide. Nearly equal numbers of species were taken at the 4 places, and females of 15 species of Chrysops, 12 of Hybomitra, 6 of Tabanus and 1 of Atylotus are recorded. The relative abundance and flight periods are reported for each. C. frigidus O.-S. was the most abundant chrysopine and H. lasiophthalma (Macq.) the most abundant tabanine; their abundance was directly related to the degree of soil wetness, differing from that of T. similis Macq. and T. quinquevittatus Wied. which was related inversely to these types of habitat. The flight period of nearly 85% of the tabanid population, consisting mainly of C. frigidus, H. lasiophthalma and H epistates (O.-S.), lasted from the end of May till mid-July. T. quinquevittatus, T. lineola F. and H. epistates were present until mid-September.

González, C. R. (1998). "The immature stages of Protodasyapha (Protodasyapha) hirtuosa (Philippi) and their comparison with the immature stages of other Pangoniini (Diptera: Tabanidae: Pangoniinae)." Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 93(4): 465-470.
	The terrestrial immature stages of the Chilean horsefly, Protodasyapha (Protodasyapha) hirtuosa (Philippi), are described P.(P.) hirtuosa resembles Ectenopsis vulpecula Macquart and Caenoprosopon trichocera (Bigot) from Australia, and Esenbeckia delta Hine from North America, in both the larval and pupal stages. Some characters that are shared between these species are unique and provide evidence of their monophyletic origin. Larvae of P. hirtuosa were found 3-5 below of the soil surface and associated with larvae of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera.

González, C. R. (1999). "A revision of southern neotropical genera related to Dasybasis Macquart, 1847 (Diptera: Tabanidae: Diachlorini)." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 137-194.
	
Goodier, R. (1962). "Blood feeding by Philoliche (Dorcaloemus) silverlocki Austen (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Nature 193: 1003.
	
Gooding, R. H., B. M. Rolseth, et al. (1977). "Digestive processes of hematophagous insects X. Effects of mammalian sera upon two trypsins from female horse flies and deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 14: 23-28.
	In this further part of a series [see RAE/B 65, 1086, etc., 2168], the effects are described of sera from cow, dog, horse, man, pig, rabbit and sheep on trypsins partially purified from tabanids by means of Sephadex gel filtration and DEAE-cellulose chromatography at a pH of 7. Trypsins from all the 3 species of Chrysops and the 6 species of Hybomitra tested that were eluted from DEAE-cellulose with 0.1 or 0.2 M potassium chloride were inhibited by mammalian sera. Trypsins from 2 species of Chrysops and 4 of Hybomitra eluted from DEAE-cellulose with 0.3 or 0.4 M potassium chloride were activated by mammalian sera. The effects of cow serum upon trypsin from C. frigidus O.-S., H. lasiophthalma (Macq.) and H. nuda (McDunn.) were found to depend on the degree of purification of the trypsin. A trypsin activator was found in the mid-gut of C. frigidus and H. nuda.

Goodwin, J. T. (1972). "Immature stages of some eastern Nearctic Tabanidae (Diptera). I. Introduction and the genus Chrysops Meigen." Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society 7(2): 98-109.
	During the past four years, approximately 1100 larvae and pupae of horse and deer flies were collected from 9 States in the south-eastern United States and adults of 29 species in 6 genera were reared from them. Immature forms of 11 species lent to the author were also studied. Descriptions of the larva and pupa of Chrysops flavidus subsp. reicherti Fairchild, of the larva of C. divisus Wlk. and of the pupa of C. atlanticus Pechuman are presented, together with comments on 8 additional species of Chrysops. Keys to the genera of the known larvae and pupae are given. The keys and introductory material refer not only to the present paper but also to at least two future ones in which elements within the subfamily Tabaninae will be discussed.

Goodwin, J. T. (1973). "Immature stages of some eastern Nearctic Tabanidae (Diptera). II. Genera of the tribe Diachlorini." Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society 8(1): 5-11.
	In this second part of a series on the larvae and pupae of eastern Nearctic Tabanids [cf. RAE/B 61, 822], figures and descriptions are presented of the larvae and pupae of Chlorotabanus crepuscularis (Beq.), Diachlorus ferrugatus (F.) and Leucotabanus annulatus (Say). These are the first descriptions of the immature stages of species in these genera.

Goodwin, J. T. (1973). "Immature stages of some eastern Nearctic Tabanidae (Diptera). III. The genus Tabanus Linneaus." Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society 8(2): 82-99.
	In this third in a series of discussions of the larvae and pupae of eastern Nearctic Tabanidae, figures and descriptions are given of the larvae and pupae of Tabanus abdominalis F., T. aranti Hays, T. fumipennis Wied., T. gladiator Stone, T. nigrescens P. de B., T. rufofrater Wlk., T. subsimilis subsimilis Bellardi and T. trimaculatus P. de B. and the pupa of T. endymion O.-S.

Goodwin, J. T. (1974). "The male of Tabanus exilipalpis Stone (Diptera, Tabanidae) and brief notes on the female." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 67(2): 295.
	
Goodwin, J. T. (1976). "Immature stages of some eastern Nearctic Tabanidae (Diptera). VI. Additional species of Chrysops Meigen." Florida Entomologist 59(4): 343-351.
	In this further morphological study of the larvae and pupae of Nearctic Chrysops spp. [see RAE/B 61, 822], those of four species are described, and the pupa only of one. The relationships of these species to other species of the genus are indicated.

Goodwin, J. T. (1976). "Immature stages of some eastern Nearctic Tabanidae (Diptera). VII. Haematopota Meigen and Whitneyomyia Bequaert plus other Tabanini." Florida Entomologist 59(4): 369-390.
	In this further part of a series on the immature stages of the tabanids of eastern North America [see RAE/B 63, 212, etc., and preceding abstract], the larvae and pupae of 6 species and the pupae only of four are described. The larva and pupa of an additional species not successfully reared are also described, since both stages exhibit characters so distinctive as to indicate that the species belongs to one of the tabanid genera not yet reared.

Goodwin, J. T. (1976). "Notes on the pupae of some Ethiopian species of Tabanidae (Diptera)." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 69(2): 311-316.
	Descriptions are given of the pupae of 5 Ethiopian species of Tabanidae: Sphecodemyia lamborni Aust., Thaumastocera akwa Grunb., Ancala fasciata (F.), Tabanus gratus Lw., and T. thoracinus P. de B.

Goodwin, J. T. (1981). "A new species of Haematopota (Diptera, Tabanidae) from Mali, West Africa." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 74(1): 106-107.
	Haematopota athlyna sp.n. is described from specimens collected in the southern third of Mali, West Africa.

Goodwin, J. T. (1982). "The Tabanidae (Diptera) of Mali." Miscellaneous Publications of the Entomological Society of America 13: 1-141.
	More than 18 000 tabanid adults, representing 44 species in 6 genera, were collected in Mali between July 1977 and June 1981. In addition, 868 adults, representing 20 species, were reared from field-collected larvae and pupae; 3 of the reared species were not captured as adults. Fourteen of the 15 species previously reported for Mali were among the 47 species collected, as were 3 new species, the previously unknown males of 6 species of Tabanus and the previously unknown larvae and pupae of 20 species, which are all described. Keys to the immature stages and adults of the species and genera of the Malian fauna are given. Data on species distributions and adult flight seasons are summarized. Notes on rearing, collecting methods and hosts are also included.

Goodwin, J. T. (1985). "Notes on the seasonal and spatial distribution of Tabanidae (Diptera) at Foret Classee de Tienfala, Republic of Mali." Myia 3: 415-431.
	More than 9000 specimens of Tabanidae of 19 species were collected between December 1978 and June 1981, using biconical traps, plastic canopy traps, Malaise traps and hand collections. Climatological data were also collected, and related to adult fly activity patterns.

Goodwin, J. T. (1987). "Immature stages of some eastern Nearctic Tabanidae (Diptera). VIII. Additional species of Tabanus Linnaeus and Chrysops Meigen." Florida Entomologist 70(2): 268-277.
	Immature stages of Tabanus colon, T. cymatophorus, T. lineola hinellus and Chrysops obsoletus are described and illustrated from specimens collected in Texas. Additional comments are provided on the immature stages of T. venustus, previously described, and separation of the immatures of these 5 species from other known immatures of Nearctic Tabanidae is discussed. A key to Tabanus larvae with a stigmatal spine is provided, as is a key to selected Chrysops larvae.

Goodwin, J. T. (1994). "Immature stages of some eastern Nearctic Tabanidae (Diptera): additional species of Tabanus Linnaeus." Southwestern Entomologist 19(2): 139-145.
	The larvae and pupae of Tabanus abactor, T. mularis and T. texanus are described. The larvae are illustrated and compared with the known larvae of those species believed to be closely related.

Goodwin, J. T. (1999). "Dicladocera fairchildi, a new species of Tabanidae (Diptera) from Peru." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 135-136.
	
Goodwin, J. T., W. P. Boomer, et al. (1986). "Maintaining zebu Maure cattle in a tsetse infested area of Mali. II. Epidemiological considerations." Tropical Animal Health and Production 18(1): 1-12.
	Scheduled monitoring of tsetse and other biting flies (especially tabanids, Stomoxys niger, Hippobosca variegata and Musca crassirostris) with biconical traps at Tienfala Forest, Mali, from December 1979 to June 1981 yielded more than 14 500 flies. Comparisons of the monthly totals of flies with the monthly incidence of bovine trypanosomiasis in sentinel cattle suggested that transmission by the single riverine glossinid Glossina palpalis gambiensis accounted for most if not all transmission. Trypanosoma vivax, T. congolense and T. brucei were identified in tsetse flies. The data obtained suggested that human decisions had contributed to the disease problem and that viable solutions to the problem existed.

Goodwin, J. T. and B. M. Drees (1996). "The horse and deer flies (Diptera, Tabanidae) of Texas." Southwestern Entomologist Supplement No. 20: 140 pp.
	This publication is the first attempt to summarize available knowledge of the tabanid fauna of Texas, USA. It is based on a combination of published records, recent collections, rearing of field-collected larvae and pupae, and examination of the collections of numerous universities, museums and private individuals. To date, 109 species of Tabanidae are known to occur in Texas. 23 species are reported from the state for the 1st time (including Apatolestes aitkeni, A. michineri, Silvius gibsoni, Chrysops beameri, C. bistellatus, C. celatus, C. dacne, C. dorsopunctus, C. fulvaster, C. geminatus, C. hyalinus, C. macquarti, C. moechus, C. parvulus, C. sequax, Hybomitra phaenops, H. rhombica, H. rubrilata, Tabanus limbatinevris, T. mogollon, T. turbidus and T. zythicolor). Detailed collection data are provided for 9 species previously reported from Texas but which had incomplete records: C. dissimilis, Agkistrocerus finitimus, A. megerlei, T. calens, T. equalis, T. imitans, T. nefarius, T. quinquevittatus and T. reinwardtii. An additional 36 species thought to possibly occur in the state are discussed. This publication presents current knowledge on the systematics and biology of the Tabanidae of Texas, and contributes to the study of biodiversity of the state's insects. Biogeographical affinities of tabanid species are discussed. Descriptions of developmental stages, natural enemies, collection methods and taxonomic characters are included. This publication contains taxonomic keys for identifying larval stages to genus, and adult specimens to the genus and species levels. In some cases, such as for Chrysops and Tabanus, separate keys are presented for male and female specimens. Photographs of wing patterns of Silvius, Neochrysops, Chrysops, Diachlorus and Haematopota are included. A listing of historic references, description, comments section, distribution map illustrating county collection records and detailed collection information is given for each species. Comment sections describe the species' occurrence in neighbouring states, national distribution and larval habitat.

Goodwin, J. T., B. A. Mullens, et al. (1985). "The Tabanidae of Tennessee." Bulletin Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Tennessee 642: 1-73.
	This publication on the Tabanidae (horseflies, deerflies) of Tennessee is divided into 2 parts. The 1st deals with the general biology and ecology of the flies, under the headings: juvenile stages and habits; adult habits; natural enemies; economic importance and control; collection, handling and preservation; classification; taxonomic characters; and zoogeographical zones of Tennessee. The 2nd part consists of a series of keys to the Tabanidae occurring or possibly occurring in Tennessee, including a key to the genera of Tabanidae larvae and pupae, and one to the genera of Tabanidae adults. There are also keys to the different genera found in Tennessee (Stonemyia, Chrysops, Hybomitra, Tabanus, Atylotus), and the genera represented by a single species in Tennessee are briefly described (Goniops, Merycomyia, Silvius, Neochrysops, Diachlorus, Chlorotabanus, Leucotabanus, Haematopota, Whitneyomyia, Hamatabanus). There is an extensive bibliography and an appendix consisting of maps of distribution of Tabanidae in Tennessee.

Goodwin, J. T. and W. P. Murdoch (1974). "A study of some immature Neotropical Tabanidae (Diptera)." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 67(1): 85-133.
	Eight hundred adult Tabanids representing 20 species in 9 genera were reared from 2273 field-collected larvae or pupae from the Panama Canal Zone and the Republic of Panama in 1963-65. Pupae of 2 further species, one representing an additional genus, were subsequently obtained. These examples were used to prepare descriptions of the larva or pupa of 2 species of Chrysops, 2 of Chlorotabanus, 1 of Lepiselaga, 2 of Leucotabanus, 1 of Pseudacanthocera, 1 of Philipotabanus, 1 of Stenotabanus, 4 of Stibasoma, 1 of Poeciloderas, and 8 of Tabanus. Keys to 15 genera of larvae and 17 of pupae of neotropical Tabanids are included.

Gorayeb, I. d. S. (1993). "Tabanidae (Diptera) from the Amazon: XI. Seasonal activity of species from the eastern Amazon and correlation with climatic factors." Boletim do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi Serie Zoologia 9(2): 241-281.
	The Tabanidae (Horseflies and deerflies) attracted to a horse, were studied in the eastern Amazon Basin. Year-long studies of the seasonal activity patterns of tabanid species were made in two areas: (1) Morelandia ranch, km 6 on the PA-408 highway, Municipality of Benevides, monthly from May, 1980, to June, 1981, in both primary forest and planted pasture, with a total of 20,190 specimens of 46 tabanid species collected; (2) "APEG" forest preserve on the Guama River margin near Belem, from September, 1982, to December, 1983, with a total of 13,835 specimens of 38 tabanid species collected. The correlation of certain climatic factors with the seasonal abundances of common tabanid species was investigated and statistically significant relations were found for some species with air temperature, relative humidity of the air, rainfall, insolation, evaporation potentiality or light intensity. This research provides baseline data for future studies of strategies to control these important pest and vector horsefly species.

Gorayeb, I. d. S. (1999). "Tabanidae (Diptera) of the Amazon: XIV. Vertical stratification in an eastern amazonian forest." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 367-386.
	
Gordon, R. M., L. J. Chwatt, et al. (1948). "The results of a preliminary entomological survey of Loiasis at Kumba, British Cameroons, together with a description of the breeding-places of the vector and suggestions for future research and possible methods of control." Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 42: 364-376.
	
Gouteux, J. P., F. Noireau, et al. (1989). "The host preferences of Chrysops silacea and C. dimidiata (Diptera: Tabanidae) in an endemic area of Loa loa in the Congo." Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 83: 167-172.
	The analysis of 404 blood meals from Chrysops silacea and C. dimidiata which had been collected in the forests of the Chaillu mountains (People's Republic of the Congo) has demonstrated for the first time that both species also feed on non-human hosts. For both species the feeding patterns are fairly similar. However, man remains the main host in 89-90% of the cases. C. silacea and C. dimidiata took 6 and 4% respectively of their blood meals from hippopotamuses, 2 and 0% from rodents, 2 and 4% from wild ruminants, and 0.8 and 0.7% from monitor lizards. Whenever a differentiation has been made between the different members of the primates, only meals from humans but not from chimpanzees or baboons have been detected. The results may provide an explanation for the distinct barrier between the simian and human loiasis infections. They also give evidence for the ability of both vectors to travel over prolonged distances.

Graham, N. L. and J. G. Stoffolano, Jr. (1983). "Oviposition behavior of the salt marsh greenhead, Tabanus simulans (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 76(4): 703-706.
	Females of Tabanus simulans Wlk. were observed ovipositing in a salt marsh in Massachusetts in 1979 and 1980 between 0900 and 1700 h from 6 June to 2 August; peak activity was between 1200 and 1300 h, and 70% of females oviposited between 1100 and 1400 h. Of 63 egg masses observed being deposited, 81% were laid on the short form of Spartina alterniflora in the low marsh, as compared with 19% on the tall form. No females deposited their eggs on S. patens or any other high-marsh vegetation. Given a choice in the laboratory of S. alterniflora, S. patens or Distichlis spicata, 98% of females oviposited on S. alterniflora.

Graham, N. L. and J. G. Stoffolano, Jr. (1983). "Relationship between female size, type of egg mass deposited, and description of the oviposition behavior of the sibling species Tabanus nigrovittatus and T. simulans (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 76(4): 699-702.
	In studies on 2 sibling species of tabanids on a salt marsh in Massachusetts, smaller flies (referable to Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq.) deposited double-tiered egg masses on the adaxial surface of leaf blades of Spartina alterniflora while orienting themselves on the leaf blade with their heads directed towards the marsh surface. Larger females (referable to T. simulans Wlk.) deposited single-layered shingled eggs with their heads oriented towards the sky. T. simulans was observed in both the laboratory and field, but T. nigrovittatus only in the laboratory.

Granger, C. A. (1970). "Trap design and color as factors in trapping the salt marsh greenhead fly." Journal of Economic Entomology 63: 1670-1672.
	
Grant, I. F. (2001). "Insecticides for tsetse and trypanosomiasis control: is the environmental risk acceptable?" Trends in Parasitology 17: 10-14.
	
Gray, A. R., M. M. Mahmoud, et al. (1979). "Epidemiological studies on Trypanosoma evansi in the Sudan." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 73: 136-137.
	
Grebeniuk, R. V. and P. A. Chirov (1971). Horseflies of Kirgizia, family Tabanidae (Slepni Kirgizii, semeistvo Tabanidae). Akademiia nauk Kirgizskoi SSR. Institut biologii. Frunze, Izdatel'stvo 'Ilim'.
	
Green, B. E., L. D. Foil, et al. (1996). "Stability of equine infectious anemia virus in Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae), Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae) and Tabanus fuscicostatus (Diptera: Tabanidae) stored at degrees -70 C." Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 12: 334-336.
	Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) was injected intrathoracically into Aedes aegypti, Stomoxys calcitrans, and Tabanus fuscicostatus, and fed to Ae. aegypti in suspensions of either artificial blood or Eagle's Minimum Essential Medium. Insects were stored at -70 degree C for up to 9 months before testing for the presence of EIAV. The viral tissue culture titer, detected from stored insects were similar to those from insects tested at time 0.

Gressitt, J. L. (1961). "Problems in the zoogeography of Pacific and Antarctic insects." Pacific Insects, Monograph 2, B.P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu: 1-127.
	
Gressitt, J. L. and M. K. Gressitt (1962). "An improved Malaise trap." Pacific Insects 4: 87-90.
	
Grevelink, S. A., D. E. Youssef, et al. (1993). "Salivary gland extracts from the deerfly contain a potent inhibitor of platelet aggregation." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 90(19): 9155-9158.
	Salivary gland extracts of the deerfly (Chrysops) contain a potent inhibitor of platelet aggregation, which assists the insect in obtaining a blood meal. The extract prevents platelet aggregation induced by ADP, thrombin and collagen and inhibits fibrinogen binding to the glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor on platelets. The active component in deerfly salivary gland extract appears to be a protein that is comparatively more potent than the disintegrins present in viper venoms. Isolation and characterization of this protein may provide different directions in therapeutics and studies of normal platelet physiology.

Griffiths, G. C. D. (1994). "Relationships among the major subgroups of Brachycera (Diptera): A critical review." Canadian Entomologist 126: 861-880.
	Six major subgroups of the Brachycera are recognized under the names Stratiomyomorpha, Vermileonomorpha new infraorder, Tabanomorpha, Nemestrinoidea, Pleroneura, and Eremoneura. Recent suggestions regarding the possible sister-group of the Brachycera are reviewed, and all found to be inadequately supported. Characters used to support possible relationships between the major subgroups (i.e. possible synapomorphies) are reviewed with respect to morphological interpretation and polarity. On the basis of this analysis, five partly conflicting possible groupings are discussed: (1) all other Brachycera as the sister-group of the Stratiomyomorpha; (2) Muscomorpha sensu Woodley (Nemestrinoidea + Heterodactyla); (3) inclusion of Nemestrinoidea in Tabanomorpha; (4) Heterodactyla sensu Lameere (Pleroneura + Eremoneura); and (5) an asilotabaniform group (Vermileonomorpha + Tabanomorpha + Nemestrinoidea + Pleroneura). Resolution of conflicts among these possible groupings will require critical morphological studies of the phallic complex and embryological studies of groups of Brachycera other than Cyclorrhapha. Because of present uncertainties, it is recommended that authors consider alternatives rather than rely on a single preferred concept of phylogeny at this time. Autapomorphies of the major subgroups are discussed in an appendix.

Grothaus, R. H., J. R. Haskins, et al. (1976). "Insect repellent jacket: status, value and potential." Mosquito News 36(1): 11-18.
	Lightweight net jackets were treated with deet at rates of 0.125, 0.25 or 0.5 g/g netting. Field studies in North Carolina indicated that the 0.25-g treatment level would provide protection from mosquitoes for 6 weeks. The same jackets provided protection against Culicoides furens (Poey) for over 7 weeks. Studies with Chrysops spp. proved more variable; one jacket provided 91% protection after 2 weeks at the 0.5-g treatment level, but another failed.Through the work of several investigators, a relatively complete picture of the effectiveness of the insect repellent jacket now exists. It has been tested in a variety of countries and climates. On the basis of the data now available, the authors conclude that the deet-treated jacket will provide protection against a variety of blood-feeding Diptera for at least 6 weeks.

Gruvel, J. and J. Balis (1965). "La trypanosomiase à Trypanosoma evansi chez le dromadaire au Tchad et ses principaux vecteurs." Revue d'Élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 18: 435-439.
	
Guerenstein, P. G. and J. G. Hildebrand (2008). "Roles and effects of environmental carbon dioxide in insect life." Annual Review of Entomology 53(1): 161-178.
	Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a ubiquitous sensory cue that plays multiple roles in insect behavior. In recent years understanding of the well-known role of CO2 in foraging by hematophagous insects (e.g., mosquitoes) has grown, and research on the roles of CO2 cues in the foraging and oviposition behavior of phytophagous insects and in behavior of social insects has stimulated interest in this area of insect sensory biology. This review considers those advances, as well as some of the mechanistic bases of the modulation of behavior by CO2 and important progress in our understanding of the detection and CNS processing of CO2 information in insects. Finally, this review briefly addresses how the ongoing increase in atmospheric CO2 levels may affect insect life.

Gunarova, V. and J. Brt' ka (1976). "The zoogeographical distribution of horse-flies (Tabanidae, Diptera) in Czechoslovakia (Part I)." Acta Zootechnica Universitatis Agriculturae, Nitra, Czechoslovakia 32: 143-181.
	In this first part of a review of the geographical distribution of Tabanidae, 61 species and subspecies are listed, distributed between 10 genera, as follows: Chrysops (8), Silvius (1), Hybomitra (18), Atylotus (5), Therioplectes (1), Tabanus (17), Glaucops (1), Heptatoma (1), Haematopota (7) and Philipomyia (2). The number of localities in which each species occurs is shown, together with percentage representation in the steppe, forest and mountain zones of the latter. The months in which adults of each species are active are shown in a list, and the species are classified as dominant, subdominant or of low population density on the basis of their occurrence on grazing cattle in Slovakia. The dominant species are Tabanus bromius L., Haematopota subcylindrica Pand. and H. pluvialis (L.). Maps are given showing the distribution in Czechoslovakia of 26 species of tabanids.

Hacker, J. D., L. Butler, et al. (1979). "New geographical distribution records for forty-four species and subspecies of tabanids in West Virginia." Cooperative Plant Pest Report 4(14): 220-224.
	A list is given of 3 new state records and 133 new county records of tabanids in West Virginia, involving 44 species and subspecies and bringing up to date previous records published in 1976. The 3 tabanid species new to West Virginia are Chrysops beameri Brennan, of which 3 females were netted near a man in Mason County in July 1977; C. celatus Pechuman, collected in Summers County in June 1977; and Tabanus cymatophorus O.-S., of which 4 females were caught in a Malaise trap in Hampshire County in August 1977. Notes are given on the previously known distribution range of these species in the USA.

Hacker, J. D., L. Butler, et al. (1979). "New geographical distribution records for twenty-eight species and subspecies of tabanids in West Virginia (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Entomological News 90(4): 200-202.
	One new state record and 63 new county records for 28 species and subspecies of tabanids are listed for West Virginia. The new state record was Leucotabanus annulatus (Say).

Hackett, K. J., R. F. Whitcomb, et al. (1996). "Spiroplasma corruscae sp. nov., from a firefly beetle (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) and tabanid flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 46(4): 947-950.
	Spiroplasma strain EC-1T (T = type strain), which was isolated from the gut of a lampyrid beetle (Ellychnia corrusca) in Maryland, was serologically distinct from other spiroplasma species and groups. Similar strains were obtained from other E. corrusca specimens, and, later, numerous isolates of similar or partially related strains were obtained from several species of tabanid files. Cells of strain EC-1T were helical, motile filaments that were bound by a single cytoplasmic membrane, and there was no evidence of a cell wall. The cells were filterable through 220-nm-pore-size membrane filters but not through 100-nm-pore-size membrane filters. The organism was absolutely resistant to penicillin (1,000 U/ml) and required sterol for growth. Strain EC-1T grew well in M1D and SP-4 liquid media and could be cultivated in the Edward formulation of conventional mycoplasma medium and in 1% serum fraction medium. Optimal growth occurred at 32 degrees C (doubling time, 1.5 h). Strain EC-1T multiplied at 10 to 41 degrees C, but not at 5 or 43 degrees C. This organism produced acid from glucose, but did not hydrolyze arginine or utilize urea. The guanine-plus-cytosine content of the DNA was determined to be 26.3 mol% by the melting temperature method and 27.0 mol% by the buoyant density method. As a result of our studies, strain EC-1 (= ATCC 43212) is designated the type strain of a new species, Spiroplasma corruscae

Haddow, A. J. and P. S. Corbet (1960). "Observations on nocturnal activity in some African Tabanidae (Diptera)." Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society London (A) 35: 1-5.
	
Hafez, M., S. El-Ziady, et al. (1970). "Biological studies of the immature stages of Tabanus taeniola P. de B. in Egypt." Bulletin de la Société d'entomologie d'Egypte 54: 465-493.
	Details are given of further studies in Egypt on the biology of Tabanus taeniola P. de B. [cf. last abstract but one]. Egg-masses were collected in the field and taken to the laboratory, where observations were made on the duration of the immature stages at constant temperatures between 7 and 35 deg C and constant relative humidities between 20 and 100% and also at ambient temperatures and relative humidities.The egg-masses contained an average of 259.2 eggs, and the larvae hatched in about 96 h in June and about 213 h in November. Relative humidity had little effect on the duration of the egg stage, but below 50% R.H. none of the eggs hatched. The larvae were found mainly in the mud of the banks of irrigation canals. They were sometimes found among the roots of plants growing on the banks, and relatively large numbers were found inside hollow maize stems that had been thrown into the canals, feeding on snails within the stems. In the laboratory, the larvae were provided with freshly killed larvae of Musca domestica L. as food.The number of larval instars was usually seven but sometimes six, eight or nine. Under insectary conditions, larvae that hatched from eggs laid between May and August completed their development in the same year, the larval stage lasting about 49.7 days, but those hatching from eggs laid after August overwintered in the last instar and pupated in spring after a larval stage averaging 225 days. The development of larvae lasted a mean of 55 days at 32 deg C, 159 days at 27 deg C and 269 days at 22 deg C. The pupal stage averaged about 9.1 days in June-July at ambient temperatures and about 15.2 days in October-November. At constant temperatures, it averaged 33.1 days at 17 deg C and 7.7 days at 35 deg C; pupae kept at 7 deg C did not give rise to adults. The relative humidity had little effect on the duration of the pupal stage, but no adults emerged when it was less than 20-30%.

Hafez, M., S. El-Ziady, et al. (1970). "Biological studies on Tabanus taeniola P. de B. adults [Diptera: Tabanidae]." Bulletin de la Société d'entomologie d'Egypte 54: 327-344.
	An account is given of studies in Egypt on the adults of Tabanus taeniola P. de B. [cf. next abstract], which is the most abundant Tabanid there and is a serious pest of cattle, horses and camels. The studies were carried out mainly in the laboratory, where the adults were provided with citrated blood, water and sugar or a sucrose solution. Adult emergence generally occurred between 10.30 a.m. and 2 p.m. Pupae about to give rise to adults were able to work their way to the surface through a column of dry sand up to 2 m high, but were unable to penetrate more than 10 cm of wet sand. A temperature of 27 deg C was optimum for adult emergence. At 27 and 32 deg C, the interval between emergence and the first flight averaged about 3.1 and 2.6 h for females, respectively, and about 2.9 and 2.5 h for males. The corresponding intervals between emergence and the first feed averaged 6 and 5 days, respectively, for females provided with blood, 4.5 and 3.7 h for females provided with a 10% sucrose solution, and 4.4 and 3.6 h for males provided with the sucrose solution. It was found that the females were unable to take a blood-meal unless they had first fed on a sugar solution. In the laboratory, females provided with sucrose lived for averages of 32.3 days in June-July and 46.6 days in October-November; the corresponding figures for males were 27.6 and 38.3 days. In the insectary, the preoviposition period averaged about 9.6 days in June and about 15.3 days in November. In the field, the females oviposited on aquatic plants at the edges of irrigation canals.

Hafez, M., S. El-Ziady, et al. (1970). "Studies on the feeding habits of female Tabanus taeniola P. de B." Bulletin de la Société d'entomologie d'Egypte 54: 365-376.
	Further studies were carried out in Egypt on the biology of Tabanus taeniola P. de B. [cf. preceding abstract, etc.]. The feeding mechanism and the biting habits of the females were observed and are described in detail. Females took an average of 133.8 mg blood when feeding on citrated calf blood and 129.0 mg when feeding on a guineapig. A blood-meal was essential for oviposition, and a fully engorged female did not feed again until the eggs had been deposited. The maximum number of blood-meals taken by one individual was six. If the females had no access to water and sugar solution between blood-meals they laid no eggs. Under insectary conditions, the gonotrophic cycle lasted 3.3 days in June-July and 5.1 days in October-November. For each female, the duration of the first cycle was slightly longer than that of subsequent ones. Biting activity was greatest in the afternoon, the precise hour varying from month to month.

Hafez, M., M. Hilali, et al. (1976). "Occurrence of fungi in the alimentary canal of certain blood-sucking flies in Egypt." Wiener Tierarztliche Monatsschrift 63(4): 131-133.
	A mycological examination was made of the alimentary tract of 50 adults each of Stomoxys sitiens Rond. and Hippobosca equina L. and 25 adults each of Tabanus gratus Lw. and T. taeniola P. de B. collected in Egypt. Fungi or bacteria were found in the gut of 44 examples of S. sitiens; yeasts formed about 50% of the isolates and included species of the genera Candida, Torulopsis, Cryptococcus, Trichosporium and Rhodotorula. Moulds (mostly species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Paecilomyces and Cephalosporium) or bacteria were present in the gut of 17 examples of T. gratus and 10 of T. taeniola. Cultures of the gut contents of all 50 examples of H. equina gave negative results.

Hagemoen, R. I. M. and E. Reimers (2002). "Reindeer summer activity pattern in relation to weather and insect harassment." Journal of Animal Ecology 71: 883-892.
	
Hall, M. J. R., R. Farkas, et al. (1998). "Use of odour-baited sticky boards to trap tabanid flies and investigate repellents." Medical and Veterinary Entomology 12: 241-245.
	Tabanid flies were captured in a sheep pasture in Hungary using black plastic boards (30 x 30 cm), coated with an adhesive sheet, which were either unbaited or baited with ethane-ethiol or Swormlure-4. Five species of tabanid were caught, of which Tabanus tergestinus was caught in the greatest number (87% of 192). The sex ratio of T. tergestinus on unbaited boards was not statistically significantly different to equality. However, on baited boards, males were significantly more numerous, probably due to a repellent effect of the odours on female tabanids. Because of the importance of repellents in tabanid control, this result encourages the exploration of a wider range of compounds as tabanid repellents than are used at present. Sticky boards offer a simple technique for trapping both sexes of tabanids, especially males, which are poorly represented in many tabanid traps.

Hall, M. J. R., S. M. Kheir, et al. (1983). "Tsetse and trypanosomiasis survey of Southern Darfur Province, Sudan. I. Bovine trypanosomiasis." Tropical Animal Health and Production 15: 191-206.
	
Hall, M. J. R., S. M. Kheir, et al. (1984). "Tsetse and trypanosomiasis survey of southern Darfur province, Sudan. II. Entomological aspects." Tropical Animal Health and Production 16: 127-140.
	A tsetse survey of Southern Darfur province, Sudan showed that the distribution of the only species present, Glossina morsitans submorsitans, had not appreciably altered over 10 years. Fly populations are most dense south of the Wadi Umbelasha but light infestations are found in the woodlands north of this riverine system to a latitude of about 10 degrees 15' N. Data are given on host availability which is thought to be the major factor determining tsetse distribution. The relative importance of tsetse and of tabanids as transmitters of bovine trypanosomiasis in the province is discussed. The evidence indicates that tsetse are very much more important and that cattle are most at risk of contracting infections during their dry season southerly migrations to the tsetse belts especially during their Rushash migration at first rains. Possibilities of tsetse control are discussed but in the short term trypanosomiasis control is most likely best achieved by chemical prophylaxis/therapy of cattle at risk.

Hall, M. J. R. and R. Wall (2004). Biting flies: their role in the mechanical transmission of trypanosomes to livestock and methods for their control. The Trypanosomiases, Wallingford, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International.
	
Handel, E. V., J. S. Haeger, et al. (1972). "The sugars of some Florida nectars." American Journal of Botany 59: 1030-1032.
	
Hanec, W. and G. K. Bracken (1964). "Seasonal and geographical distribution of Tabanidae (Diptera) in Manitoba, based on females captured in traps." Canadian Entomologist 96: 1362-1369.
	
Hansens, E. J. (1979). "Tabanidae of the East Coast as an economic problem." Journal of the New York Entomological Society 87(4): 312-318.
	The author reviews the occurrence and importance of tabanids as pests of man and animals in many areas of the coastal states of the eastern USA. The tabanids are of special importance near salt marshes. The main species, Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq. and Chrysops atlanticus Pechuman move from the marshes to nearby beaches, camping grounds, golf courses and other recreational areas and on to boats in the bays and estuaries. Chrysops congregate in dense vegetation and attack when man or animals move into such places. Both Tabanus and Chrysops are a severe problem to agricultural workers. Livestock are readily attacked by tabanids and the flies have an effect on thriftiness, weight gains and milk production; they may also transmit the causal agents of disease. The biology and habits of both salt-marsh and upland species are poorly known; it is thought that T. nigrovittatus may be a species complex. Some insecticides have given control of either Tabanus or Chrysops, but not both, and some control of Tabanus has been afforded by traps and vegetative barriers; in general, control is inadequate.

Hansens, E. J. (1981). "Resmethrin and permethrin sprays to reduce annoyance from a deer fly, Chrysops atlanticus." Journal of Economic Entomology 74: 3-4.
	Resmethrin and permethrin were applied to reduce annoyance from Chrysops atlanticus Pechuman in agricultural areas of southern New Jersey. Resmethrin was applied at rates of 0.015 to 0.112 kg/ha by mist blower. Spray was directed from the edge of the fields into the wooded zone between cultivated fields and salt marsh. At these rates, annoyance (except in 1 application) was reduced by more than 95% 1 h after treatment, by 27-97% after 8 h, and by 0-96% after 24 h. Resmethrin in 2 applications by ULV and 2 applications with low-volume mist blower at 0.0078 and 0.041 kg/ha, respectively, was also effective. Permethrin in limited tests similarly reduced annoyance.

Hansens, E. J., E. M. Bosler, et al. (1971). "Use of traps for study and control of saltmarsh greenhead flies." Journal of Economic Entomology 64: 1481-1486.
	
Hansens, E. J. and J. Rabin (1981). "Deer fly, Chrysops atlanticus Pechuman, activity in cultivated fields and nearby salt marsh breeding places." Environmental Entomology 10(5): 590-591.
	Chrysops atlanticus Pechuman is an important pest of man in the eastern USA and moves from the salt marsh and concentrates in wooded areas, especially along field edges. Studies at 4 sites in New Jersey showed that over 2% of adults of C. atlanticus were attracted to man 50 and 100 m into the field whereas 64% were encountered at the field margin and the rest in the ecotone and on the salt marsh. No concentration of flies occurred where no vegetative barrier was present between the marsh and fields. More flies were taken in the morning than at noon and in the late afternoon during June and July.

Hansens, E. J. and J. W. Robinson (1973). "Emergence and movement of the saltmarsh deer flies Chrysops fuliginosus and Chrysops atlanticus." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 66(6): 1215-1218.
	A study in 1970 of the saltmarsh species of Chrysops at Brigantine National Wildlife Refuge in New Jersey showed that C. fuliginosus Wied. emerged from 23rd to 25th June and C. atlanticus Pechuman from 10th June to 3rd August. C. fuliginosus emerged within 9.1 m of the ecotone, and where a freshwater influence was observed. Collections on sticky panels showed both species tend to move inland. C. atlanticus persisted inland for about 2 weeks after disappearing from the marsh, and it was most numerous about 180 m inland from the ecotone. C. fuliginosus showed less definite trends but was most dense about 90 m from the ecotone. Both species flew round the face and occasionally settled to bite on a person moving or waving his arms, but if movement stopped the flies left in less than 2 min.

Hansens, E. J. and P. Slavin (1981). "Reduction of deerfly annoyance by resmethrin sprays and possible relations to mosquito control." New Jersey Mosquito Control Association, Inc. : Proceedings, Sixty-seventh Annual Meeting, New Jersey Mosquito Control Association, Inc., Cherry Hill, New Jersey, 12-14 March 1980: 112-116.
	Using air-blast sprayers, resmethrin and permethrin were applied to agricultural areas in New Jersey to reduce annoyance to man by Chrysops atlanticus Pechuman. Resmethrin was applied to salt-marsh and to woodland between cultivated fields at 0.112-0.015 kg/ha and reduced fly annoyance by more than 95% 1 h after treatment, 27-97% after 8 h, and 0-96% after 24 h. Resmethrin applied with a low-volume mist blower or ULV sprayer at low doses was also effective. Limited experiments with permethrin gave similar results. The integration of such sprays into a programme against flies and mosquitoes is discussed.

Hargrove, J. W. (1977). "Some advances in the trapping of tsetse (Glossina spp.) and other flies." Ecological Entomology 2(2): 123-137.
	Shortcomings in the methods of testing mechanical traps for Glossina spp. and other flies were partially overcome by relating the efficiency of all traps to that of electric trapping devices that had been shown to capture over 95% of tsetse flies approaching them. Various types of trap used in Rhodesia, both new and previously described, are described in detail and illustrated, and their efficiency is compared; the most effective were vertical vane traps of several kinds. The classical 'animal-type' traps caught only a small percentage of the tsetse that approached them; the addition of ox odour increased the number of flies visiting the trap but not the number caught. Changes in trap design increased their efficiency 4-5 times. The addition of large quantities of ox odour increased the efficiency of the most effective of the vertical-vane traps as well as the absolute number of flies taken; the odour of livestock (oxen, sheep, goats, donkey and a buffalo) having a total mass of 11.5 t enabled 2000 adults of G. morsitans Westw. and G. pallidipes Aust. to be caught in 3 h. None of the described traps was particularly suitable for tabanids, but some were used to trap large numbers of biting muscids. The implications for new methods of tsetse control are discussed.

Hargrove, J. W. and G. Vale (1979). "Aspects of the feasibility of employing odour-baited traps for controlling tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae)." Bulletin of Entomological Research 69: 283-290.
	
Hargrove, J. W. and G. A. Vale (1978). "The effect of host odour concentration on catches of tsetse flies (Glossinidae) and other Diptera in the field." Bulletin of Entomological Research 68(4): 607-612.
	Flies attracted to odours from 500 to 11 500 kg of livestock were captured using electrified netting in the Zambesi Valley, Rhodesia. Catches of male Glossina morsitans Westw., Tabanidae, Stomoxyinae and non-biting muscids reached maximum levels at odour concentrations produced by only 500-3500 kg of livestock but catches of females G. morsitans and both sexes of G. pallidipes Aust. increased over the whole range of concentrations tested. With the maximum dose of odour, up to 7100 tsetse were caught in 3 h. The proportion of tenerals in catches of Glossina was not affected by odour concentration. Daily catches of Glossina were positively correlated with daily maximum temperatures. The maintenance of large catches of flies for 60 days and the indication that larger catches are possible suggest the feasibility of employing odour-baited traps for tsetse control.

Harlan, D. P. and R. H. Roberts (1976). "Tabanidae: use of a self-marking device to determine populations in the Mississippi-Yazoo River Delta." Environmental Entomology 5(2): 210-212.
	Fluorescent pigment in a self-marking device on a Malaise trap baited with carbon dioxide (released at 100 or 500 ml/min) was used to mark flies in an attempt to estimate the size of the tabanid population in the Delta Experimental Forest, Stoneville, Mississippi. Flies were recaptured in 3 other malaise traps baited with carbon dioxide. The estimated daily average for the first test from 1 to 25 August 1974 was 989 195 female tabanids in the 4-mile2 area. The estimated daily average for a second test from 10 September to 7 October 1974 was 275 497 female tabanids in the same area.

Harley, J. M. B. (1965). "Seasonal abundance and diurnal variations in activity of some Stomoxys and Tabanidae in Uganda." Bulletin of Entomological Research 56: 319-332.
	
Harr, M. (1989). "Bayofly Pour-on: evaluation of mastitis prophylaxis in grazing cattle in southern Germany." Veterinary Medical Review 60(1-2): 31-35.
	The efficacy of Bayofly Pour-on (cyfluthrin) in preventing summer mastitis (caused by Actinomyces pyogenes) was assessed in grazing cattle from several regions of southern Germany (Allgau, Oberschwaben, Schwabische Alb and Black Forest) during June-September 1986. A total of 744 cattle from 16 farms were used in the trial (including an untreated control herd of 48 animals). Animals were treated on the dorsal line between the shoulder blades with 10 ml Bayofly; 5 herds were given a 2nd dose 4-8 weeks after the first treatment. Data on the treatment, behaviour, fly infestation and incidence of mastitis in animals is tabulated. Depending on the weather, a fly-repellent effect of up to 4 weeks was observed (against "headflies", Haematobia irritans, H. stimulans [Haematobosca stimulans] and gadflies [Tabanidae]); this was reduced in periods of prolonged or heavy rainfall. It is suggested that effective control of summer mastitis can be achieved with an effective, long-term fly control scheme.

Harris, R. L. (1976). "Susceptibility of three species of tabanids to certain insecticides." Southwestern Entomologist 1(1): 52-55.
	The toxicity of topical applications of 23 insecticides to females of Tabanus subsimilis Bellardi and of 13 insecticides to females of T. sulcifrons Macq. and T. proximus Wlk. was determined in laboratory tests in Texas. The most effective insecticides were chlorpyrifos, chlorfenvinphos (Compound 4072), dichlorvos, FMC 33297 [3-(phenoxyphenyl)methyl 3-(2,2-dichloroethenyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate], propoxur and pyrethrins.

Harris, R. L. and D. D. Oehler (1976). "Control of tabanids on horses." Southwestern Entomologist 1(4): 194-197.
	Insecticides that had proved effective in the laboratory against tabanids were applied in the field in Texas on horses at 0.5 g active ingredient/animal for the control of 2 groups in which Tabanus subsimilis Bellardi and T. sulcifrons Macq., respectively, were the predominant species. Permethrin gave good mortality for about 2 weeks, and SD 43775 (cyano(3-phenoxyphenyl)methyl 4-chloro- alpha -(1-methylethyl)benzeneacetate) and AC 206797 (cyano(3-phenoxyphenyl)methyl 3,3-dimethylspiro[cyclopropane-1,1'-[1H]indene]-2-carboxylate) were effective for about 1 week. Chlorfenvinphos (Compound 4072), chlorpyrifos, propoxur, toxaphene and a mixture of tetrachlorvinphos (stirofos) and dichlorvos were completely ineffective. The half-life of one formulation of permethrin (40% cis and 60% trans isomers) on hair was about 3 days; 10 p.p.m. was found to be necessary to kill tabanids, and about 2 p.p.m. to kill Stomoxys calcitrans (L.).

Hartini, S. and J. Aziz (1991). "Trypanosoma evansi in Tabanus rubidus in Jongool, West Java." Malayan Veterinary Journal 3: 31-32.
	
Hasselschwert, D. L., D. D. French, et al. (1993). "Relative susceptibility of beef and dairy calves to infection by bovine leukemia virus via tabanid (Diptera: Tabanidae) feeding." Journal of Medical Entomology 30: 472-473.
	Differences in susceptibility of beef (mixed breeds) and dairy (Holstein) calves to infection by bovine leukemia virus (BLV) were compared. Transmission was accomplished by interrupted feeding of horse flies, Tabanus fuscicostatus Hine, on a donor cow exhibiting persistent lymphocytosis. Flies were transferred individually from the donor cow to each of 11 beef and 10 dairy calves. Transmission of BLV was accomplished with groups of 50 and 250 flies for beef calves and 75 and 250 for dairy calves. These findings indicate that susceptibility of beef and dairy calves to transmission of BLV by tabanids is equivalent and that BLV prevalence differences previously observed among cattle breeds may be caused by management practices.

Haufe, W. O. (1987). "Host-parasite interactions of blood-feeding dipterans in health and productivity of mammals." International Journal for Parasitology 17(2): 607-614.
	The basic concepts which affect the relationship between biting flies and their livestock hosts are discussed, particularly with regard to models based on injury thresholds and economic injury levels based on ecological parameters and population dynamics. Specific details of host-parasite relationships (especially host resistance) are given for various Simuliidae, Tabanidae, Ceratopogonidae, Oestridae, Hippoboscidae, Muscidae and Culicidae and their effects on cattle and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in Canada. The influence of a fly species on host productivity was modified significantly by its interactions with other species of the same complex which frequented the same host.

Hawkins, J. A., W. V. Adams, et al. (1972). "Transmission of equine infectious anemia with horse fly Tabanus fuscicostatus Hine." Proceedings of the United States Animal Health Association 76: 227-230.
	
Hawkins, J. A., W. V. Adams, et al. (1973). "Role of horse fly (Tabanus fuscicostatus Hine) and stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans L.) in transmission of equine infectious anemia to ponies in Louisiana." American Journal of Veterinary Research 34(12): 1583-1586.
	Studies were carried out in Louisiana on the possible role of Tabanus fuscicostatus Hine and Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) in the mechanical and cyclical transmission of equine infectious anaemia (swamp fever) to Shetland ponies [cf. RAE/B 31, p.102]. In the mechanical transmission experiments with S. calcitrans, the flies were fed individually until partly replete on infected ponies and then immediately after on uninfected ones. Five uninfected ponies each received bites from about 200 adults and one received 10 bites; none became infected. In the cyclical transmission experiments with this fly, 4 uninfected ponies were each bitten by 14-25 flies 3-10 days after a previous feed on an infected one; none became infected. In mechanical transmission experiments with T. fuscicostatus, 6 ponies each receiving 10-200 bites from females that had partly fed on ponies with acute infection, all became infected, but 2 others each receiving bites from 200 females partly fed on ponies with chronic infections failed to become infected. Cyclical transmission attempts with 19 and 25 females fed on 2 ponies were unsuccessful.

Hawkins, J. A., W. V. Adams, Jr., et al. (1976). "Transmission of equine infectious anemia virus by Tabanus fuscicostatus." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 168(1): 63-64.
	In studies in Louisiana, adults of Tabanus fuscicostatus Hine were fed on Shetland ponies that had been infected with equine infectious anaemia when these had a rectal temperature of above 39.5 deg C. After a partial feed, the flies were transferred to susceptible Shetland ponies immediately after feeding or after an interval of 3, 10 or 30 min or 4 or 24 h. In 1 of 7 tests with single flies re-feeding immediately after the initial feed, transmission of the virus occurred. Groups of about 25 flies re-feeding after intervals of 3, 10 or 30 min transmitted the virus in each of 2 tests at each interval, but no transmission occurred in 2 tests each with re-feeding after intervals of 4 or 24 h. As tabanids are known to have flight distances or home ranges that may exceed 4 miles, the present practice of segregation of infected horses at least 200 yeards from susceptible ones as a control measure may be inadequate. Mechanical transmission by biting flies is considered to be a major natural method of transmission of equine infectious anaemia virus.

Hawkins, J. A., J. N. Love, et al. (1982). "Mechanical transmission of anaplasmosis by tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae)." American Journal of Veterinary Research 43: 732-734.
	
Hayakawa, H. (1980). "Biological studies on Tabanus iyoensis group of Japan, with special reference to their blood-sucking habits (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Bulletin of the Tohoku National Agricultural Experiment Station 62: 131-321.
	It is thought that some 90 species of Tabanidae in 9 genera occur in Japan. The medical and veterinary importance of this group is briefly reviewed, and a detailed account is presented of studies on the group of Tabanus iyoensis Shir. that were concerned with the morphology of the immature stages, the distribution in Japan and the biology of the flies, the blood-sucking activities of the group, with special reference to autogeny, the medical importance of the group to man in Japan and the natural enemies of the tabanids. The author recognised 9 species as belonging to the group of T. iyoensis; they include T. masamitsui Hayakawa and T. hyugaensis Hayakawa, which were collected for the first time in the course of this study, and T. humilis Coq. T. sapporoensis Shir., T. kotoshoensis Shir. and T. otsurui Ogawa. Keys for the separation of the eggs, larvae and pupae of the group are provided. In addition to the severe annoyance to man and animals caused by the biting adults, in some districts the larvae bite the hands and feet of workers in the rice-fields. Tabanids are thought to be implicated in Japan in the transmission of tularaemia and anthrax to man and equine infectious anaemia to horses and summer mastitis to heifers.

Hayakawa, H. (1981). "Description of Atylotus suzukii n. sp. from Kyushu, Shikoku and Tsushima Islands, Japan (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology 32(2): 105-110.
	Atylotus suzukii sp.n. is described from the adults of both sexes. The larvae of this tabanid were collected on the seashore on the islands of Kyushu, Shikoku and Tsushima, Japan. Characters by which the new species can be distinguished from A. angusticornis (Lw.) are pointed out, and a key for the separation of the adults of the 3 species of the group of A. angusticornis now known from Japan is given.

Hayakawa , H. (1982). "Description of a new genus Hirosia from Japan and key to the species (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology 33(2): 145-147.
	The author erects the genus Hirosia gen.n. and transfers to it 9 species previously placed in the genus Tabanus. The type-species of the new genus is H. iyoensis (Shir.). A key is provided for the separation of the adults of the 9 species, all of which occur in Japan.

Hayakawa, H. (1982). "Description of six new subspecies of Chrysops vanderwulpi from Japan (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Bulletin of the Tohoku National Agricultural Experiment Station 67: 21-42.
	The author describes 6 new subspecies of Chrysops mlokosiewiczi Big. (vanderwulpi Krober) from Japan. Notes are given on the larval morphology and adult biology of the new subspecies, and a key is provided for the separation of the subspecies of C. mlokosiewiczi known from Japan.

Hayakawa, H. (1985). "A key to females of Japanese tabanid flies with a checklist of all species and subspecies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology 62: 131-321.
	Keys are provided to the adult females of the subfamilies, genera, species and subspecies of Tabanidae occurring in Japan. One hundred and three species are accepted as valid.

Hayakawa, H. (1986). "Studies on flower-visiting and nectar-sucking of tabanid flies 1. The rate of flies with pollen in each species examined on specimens (in Japanese)." Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology 37(4): 389-393.
	In a study of flower visiting by Tabanidae in Japan, the presence of pollen was examined by microscopy in females of 70 species and males of 14 species which had been collected by sweep-netting or by the use of traps baited with carbon dioxide. About 93% of all species and 20-30% of flies in most species had pollen on their bodies. More than 50% of the females of Stonemyia yezoensis, Silvius shirakii, S. oshimaensis, Chrysops japonicus, C. nigripes, Hybomitra harai, Atylotus sawadai, A. angusticornis, Tabanus chrysurinus, T. fulvilineus, T. ryukyuensis, Isshikia japonica and I. yajimai and males of T. taiwanus examined carried pollen. No conspicuous differences were observed in the rate of flies with pollen between males and females and between autogenous and unautogenous species.

Hayakawa, H. (1990). "Taxonomy of the females of Japanese tabanid flies (Diptera: Tabanidae). 1. Tabanus trigonus and chrysurus groups and related species." Miscellaneous Publication of the Tohoku National Agricultural-Experiment Station 10: 35-49.
	An illustrated key is presented to the females of the 10 species of the T. trigonus group, 4 species of the T. chrysurus group and 6 related species of the genus Tabanus from Japan. Morphological features of each species are described, and notes are given of geographical distribution.

Hayakawa, H. (1990). "Taxonomy of the females of Japanese tabanid flies (Diptera: Tabanidae). 2. Genus Isshikia and genus Haematopota." Miscellaneous Publication of the Tohoku National Agricultural Experiment Station 10: 51-61.
	An illustrated key to the females of the 2 species of Isshikia and 12 of Haematopota from Japan is presented. Morphological features of each species are described, and notes are given on their geographical distribution.

Hayakawa, H. and H. Moriyama (1981). "Description of Haematopota nasuensis n. sp. from Honshu Island, Japan (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology 32(1): 47-50.
	Haematopota nasuensis sp.n. is described from the adult female. It was collected at a livestock-breeding station on Honshu I., Japan. Characters are given by which it can be distinguished from H. hikosanensis Hayakawa & Takahasi and H. hakusanensis Togashi, to which it is closely related. A key is given to 9 species that are considered to belong to the group of H. rufipennis Big. in Japan; the new species is included in this group.

Hayakawa, H. and H. Suzuki (1984). "Description of Tabanus tokaraensis n. sp. from Tokara Islands, Japan and a key to the Japanese species belonging to rufidens groups of the genus Tabanus (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology 35(3): 277-281.
	Tabanus tokaraensis sp. n. is described from adult females collected on 3 islands in the Tokara group, Japan. Characters are given by which it can be distinguished from the closely related species T. rufidens. A key to the 10 Japanese species of the group of T. rufidens is given.

Hayakawa, H. and H. Takahasi (1983). "Description of Atylotus takaraensis n. sp. from Tokara Islands, Japan and a key to the 11 Japanese Atylotus species (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology 34(4): 289-293.
	Atylotus takaraensis sp. n. is described from the adult male and female. This tabanid was collected on Tokara Is., Japan and characters are given by which it can be distinguished from A. kakeromaensis Hayakawa, Tak. & Suzuki. A key, based on the adults, to the 11 Japanese species of the genus is provided.

Hayakawa, H., H. Takahasi, et al. (1982). "Description of Silvius oshimaensis n. sp. from Amami-oshima Island, Japan (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology 33(3): 227-231.
	Silvius oshimaensis sp.n. is described from adults of both sexes collected on Amami-oshima Is., Japan. A key is provided for the separation of the 5 species of Silvius known from Japan.

Hayakawa, H., K. Tanaka, et al. (1990). "A new tabanid fly trap with automatic CO2-emission apparatus run by weather sensors." Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology 41(4): 285-289.
	A new type of tabanid fly trap which is basically a mosquito-net shape with special collection containers installed inside was constructed, and used with a CO2-emission apparatus which was run automatically according to temperature, illumination and/or rainfall. When compared with a CO2-baited mosquito-net trap during field tests in Iwate Prefecture, Japan, the new trap collected 1.8 times more tabanid flies (of which Hirosia humilis, Tabanus nipponicus, T. chrysurus, H. iyoensis and H. sapporoensis were dominant).

Hayakawa, H., N. Yamashita, et al. (1990). "Notes on the construction and use of animal-baited traps for sampling haematophagous Diptera (in Japanese)." Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology 41(2): 121-125.
	Cattle-baited and poultry-baited traps, a modification of the steer-baited trap designed by R.H. Roberts (1965) [see Mosquito News, 25: 281-285], were constructed and used for sampling haematophagous Diptera, including large-sized Tabanidae and small-sized Ceratopogonidae. The width of the slit was much wider in the new traps (10 cm) than in the Robert's trap (1.9 cm). When compared with a CO2-lured mosquito-net trap, the cattle-baited trap collected more species and individuals of Muscidae, Culicidae, Simuliidae and Ceratopogonidae. As regards Tabanidae, however, the present width of the slit seemed a little narrow for these species to enter into the trap. A poultry-baited trap was also effective for collecting haematophagous Diptera attracted to and attacking hens.

Hayes, E. J. and R. Wall (1999). "Age-grading adult insects: a review of techniques." Physiological Entomology 24: 1-10.
	
Hayes, R. M. and H. J. Meyer (1990). Daily and seasonal flight activity of Tabanidae (Diptera) in the North Dakota sandhills. Chronobiology: its role in clinical medicine, general biology, and agriculture, part B. Proceedings of the XIX International Conference of the International Society for Chronobiology, June 20-24, 1989, Bethesda, Maryland.
	Hybomitra lasiophthalma and Tabanus similis were studied during 1987 and 1988. Manitoba traps were placed in 2 separate study sites that had previously produced high catches. Traps were monitored and flies removed hourly from dawn to dusk. Other tabanid species trapped in low numbers during this study included Chrysops indus, H. epistates, H. illota and T. atratus. Results showed that H. lasiophthalma was the first tabanid collected in late May during both years. The flight activity increased rapidly and reached a peak approximately 2 weeks after the first occurrence; numbers decreased rapidly thereafter. T. similis first occurred one week after the initial trapping of H. lasiophthalma and peak flight activity one week after emergence. T. similis was the predominant species during most of the summer in 1987. Traps caught predominantly female flies. Both species actively sought blood meals during daylight hours and their flight behaviour indicated a monophasic diel cycle with peak activity between 11.00 and 16.00 h (CDT) on calm, bright sunny days.

Hayes, R. O., O. W. Doane, Jr., et al. (1993). "Evaluation of attractants in traps for greenhead fly (Diptera: Tabanidae) collections on a Cape Cod, Massachusetts, salt marsh." Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 9(4): 436-440.
	Field studies evaluated 1-octen-3-ol (octenol), carbon dioxide (dry ice), and a combination of both attractants in comparison with unbaited traps for collecting greenhead flies on a Massachusetts salt marsh. The carbon dioxide (CO2)-baited trap collections, and the CO2 with octenol-baited trap collections were more than 300% greater than the unbaited collections. The octenol-baited traps collected 83% more greenhead flies than unbaited traps. Afternoon trap collections were 2.5 times greater than morning collections. Dissections and measurements of a sample of the flies collected indicated that the cryptic species composition of greenhead flies was 77% Tabanus nigrovittatus and 23% Tabanus conterminus. Ovarian tracheole examinations of a sample of the flies showed that 99% of the greenhead flies had laid eggs before being trapped. The use of CO2 as an attractant in the traps could be cost effective in small problem areas, and the use of octenol in the box traps should be evaluated in large areas.

Hays, K. L. (1956). "A synopsis of the Tabanidae (Diptera) of Michigan." Miscellaneous Publications of the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan 98: 1-79.
	
Heine, J. (1987). "Flies as parasites on grazing cattle in Europe." Veterinary Medical Review 1: 9-16.
	The author reviews the problems caused to grazing cattle in Europe by Diptera. Included are Haematobia irritans, H. stimulans [Haematobosca stimulans], Musca autumnalis, M. domestica, Stomoxys calcitrans and species of Hydrotaea, Morellia, Tabanus, Hybomitra, Haematopota, Muscina, Fannia and Chrysops. Information is given on the behaviour of these species, the economic damage they cause, their veterinary importance and their control. The main methods of insecticidal control are listed, including sprays, ear tags and pour-on formulations, as are the main insecticides used, which include permethrin, cyhalothrin, cypermethrin, fenvalerate, tetrachlorvinphos, flucythrinate, cyfluthrin and deltamethrin.

Helias, C., F. M. Vazeille, et al. (1998). "Spiroplasma turonicum sp. nov. from Haematopota horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in France." International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 48(2): 457-461.
	Strain Tab4cT, a helical prokaryote that was isolated from the body of a Haematopota sp. fly collected in Champchevrier, Indre-et-Loire, Touraine, France, was found to be a member of the class Mollicutes. The cells of strain Tab4cT were small, motile helices that were devoid of a cell wall. The organism passed through filters with mean pore diameters as small as 0.20 mm. Strain Tab4cT grew rapidly in liquid SP-4 medium at both 30 and 37degree C. The organism fermented glucose but did not hydrolyse arginine or urea, and did not require serum for growth. In preliminary electrophoretic analyses, the cell protein patterns of strain Tab4cT were distinct from those of 14 other spiroplasmas found in mosquitoes, deer flies and horse flies from Europe and the Far-East. In reciprocal metabolism inhibition and deformation serological tests, employing antigens and antisera representative of spiroplasma groups I-XXXIII (including all sub-groups), plus ungrouped strains BARC 1901 and BARC 2649, no serological relationship with Tab4cT was found. The G+C content of the DNA of strain Tab4cT was about 25+-1 mol% and its genome size was 1.305 kbp. It is proposed that spiroplasma strain Tab4cT be assigned to group XVII (presently vacant) and that strain (ATCC 700271T) is the type strain of a new species, Spiroplasma turonicum.

Helle, T. and J. Aspi (1983). "Does herd formation reduce insect harassment among reindeer? A field experiment with animal traps." Acta Zoologica Fennica 175: 129-131.
	This description of experiments in Finland on the hypothesis that herd formation in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) can reduce harassment by insects was presented at the Third International Reindeer/Caribou Symposium, held at Saariselka in August 1982. Simulated animal traps, baited with carbon dioxide and using dichlorvos to kill the flies taken, were laid out as if to represent single animals or a dense herd of 24 animals. Simuliids and ceratopogonids were the most frequent Diptera taken, together with some tabanids. The number of flies caught was clearly dependent on the position of the 'animal' in the 'herd', and traps in the outer ring of the array appeared to be less frequently visited by insects than single traps. These results support the hypothesis tested.

Helle, T. and J. Aspi (1984). "Do sandy patches help reindeer against insects?" Reports from the Kevo Subarctic Research Station 19: 57-62.
	Sandy patches such as river banks, roadsides and sand pits are the preferred resting places for populations of reindeer and caribou during the insect season. In northern Finland, they are used mainly in July-August, when tabanids are on the wing. The occurrence of blood-sucking insects on a grassy meadow and on a sandy river bank was studied in July 1981 with the aid of Manitoba traps baited with carbon dioxide. The daily mean catch of tabanids and (in brackets) simuliids was 26 (589) on the meadow and 5 (179) on the sandy bank. The daily available flying time (temperature above 15°C) was nearly the same at the 2 sites, but the maximum temperatures were considerabale higher on the sandy bank than on the meadow. It is suggested that, on the sandy bank, carbon dioxide released from the trap rises with the heated air, with the result that insects find the trap less efficiently than on the meadow.

Helle, T., J. Aspi, et al. (1992). "Strategies to avoid biting flies by reindeer: field experiments with silhouette traps." Annales Zoologici Fennici 29(2): 69-74.
	The effects of differences in grouping patterns (clumping vs. solitary) and habitat (open vs. forest) of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) on attack rates by blood-sucking flies (Simulium truncatum, S. rostratum, Eusimulium pusillum [S. pusillum], Culicoides pulicaris, Haematopota pluvialis, Chrysops relictus and Hybomitra spp.) were studied using CO2-baited "reindeer-like" silhouette traps in Finnish Lapland near the Arctic Circle during June-August 1982. Within the grouped traps (24 traps per group) in an open habitat, flies attacked peripheral traps more frequently than middle and central ones. In an open habitat, flies preferred isolated to grouped traps. Isolated traps placed in the forest were attacked by flies less frequently than grouped ones in an adjacent open area. The results suggest that the gregarious females and calves of open country reindeer are less subject to insect attack than the more solitary males, and that forest reindeer may use the forest as a refuge from insects.

Hemmer, W., M. Focke, et al. (1998). "Anaphylaxis induced by horsefly bites: Identification of a 69 kd IgE-binding salivary gland protein from Chrysops spp. (Diptera Tabanidae) by western blot analysis." Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 101(1): 134-136.
	
Henriques, A. L. (1993). "Tabanidae (Diptera) from the Amazon: XII. Description of four new species of Dichelacera (Dichelacera) Macquart." Boletim do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi Serie Zoologia 9(2): 219-228.
	Four new species of Dichelacera (Dichelacera) from Brazil are described: amazonensis from the Rio Japura and Sao Gabriel da Cachoeira, Amazonas: paraensis from the vicinity of Belem Para; striata from the Serra das Araras, Mato Grosso; and tetradelta from Ji-Parana, Rondonia. Diagnoses, discussions and illustrations are given.

Henriques, A. L. and J. A. Rafael (1993). "Revision of the neotropical genus Acanthocera MacQuart (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Acta Amazonica 23: 403-440.
	The Neotropical genus Acanthocera Macquart is redefined. 28 species are presented with synonymic list, figures, diagnosis and key to females. The subgenus Nothocanthocera Fairchild of Dichelacera is transferred to Acanthocera, except for D. melanoptera Hine and one species is described: A. distincta, n. sp. The subgenus Mimodynerus Enderlein is synonymized with Acanthocera. A. bequaerti Fairchild & Aitken is revalidated. A. lutzi (Enderlein) is synonymized with A. coarctata (Wiedemann). The female of polistiformis Fairchild is described. A new lectotype is designated for A. tenuicornis.

Henriques, A. L. and J. A. Rafael (1999). "Tabanidae (Diptera) from Parque Nacional do Jau, Amazonas, Brazil, with description of two new species of Diachlorus Osten Sacken." Memoirs on Entomology International 14: 195-222.
	
Hibler, C. P., G. H. Gates, et al. (1971). "Observations on horseflies infected with larvae of Elaeophora schneideri." Journal of Wildlife diseases 7(1): 43-45.
	An account is given of observations on the biology of Tabanids, mainly of the genus Hybomitra, in three areas of the Gila Forest, New Mexico. The rates of infection with larvae of Elaeophora schneideri [a filarial parasite of sheep] were 15% in the northern and north-western area, 23.3% in the central and southern area and 8.6% in the eastern and south-eastern area.

Hibler, C. P. and C. J. Metzger (1974). "Morphology of the larval stages of Elaeophora schneideri in the intermediate and definitive hosts with some observations on their pathogenesis in abnormal definitive hosts." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 10: 361-369.
	
Hine, J. S. (1923). "Horseflies collected by Dr. J.M. Aldrich in Alaska in 1921." Canadian Entomologist 55: 143-146.
	
Hoc, T. Q. (1995). "A method for the rapid recognition of nulliparous and parous females of haematophagous Diptera." Bulletin of Entomological Research 86: 137-141.
	Based on the fact that in haematophagous Diptera (e.g. Aedes aegypti, A. togoi, Anopheles gambiae, A. stephensi, Simulium woodi, S. vorax, Chrysops bicolor and Stomoxys calcitrans), the basal bodies, groups of 6-9 specialized epithelial cells in the calyx wall within the ovariolar sheath, become granular after ovulation, a method for rapidly determining parity of the females was developed. After supravitally staining intact ovaries with fresh neutral red solution in physiological saline (1:3000-1:5000) for 1 to 3 min, granular basal bodies in parous females can be clearly recognized under a stereo-microscope or a compound microscope with a raised condensor. The advantages of the method are its speed, accuracy and simplicity.

Hoc, T. Q. (1996). "Application of the ovarian oil injection and ovariolar separation techniques for age grading hematophagous Diptera." Journal of Medical Entomology 33(3): 290-296.
	The ovarian oil injection and ovariolar separation techniques were applied to determine the physiological age of species of the 3 dipteran families Culicidae, Simuliidae, and Tabanidae. The presence of a granular basal body (a granular area in the calyx wall within the ovariolar sheath) indicates at least 1 egg laying; that is, it can be used to separate parous from nulliparous females, which possess no granular basal body. In parous females, the number of ovipositions can be determined accurately by counting the number of dilatations in the diagnostic ovarioles. An egg sac, when present, indicates only the current egg laying. A diagram for age grading using the technique is presented and discussed.

Hocking, B. (1960). "Northern biting flies." Annual Review of Entomology 5(1): 135-152.
	
Hollander, A. L. and R. E. Wright (1980). "Daily activity cycles of eight species of Oklahoma Tabanidae (Diptera)." Environmental Entomology 9(5): 600-604.
	The daily activity of 8 species of Tabanidae was determined with CO2-baited Malaise traps and observations of attacks on cattle. Four species, Hybomitra lasiophthalma (Macq.), Tabanus atratus F., T. mularis Stone and T. subsimilis Bellardi, were most active between 09.00 and 18.00 h CDT. T. sulcifrons Macq. and T. trimaculatus P. de B. were active from 09.00 to 21.00 h CDT. T. abactor Philip was active throughout the day, with a definite peak of activity in late afternoon and early evening, while T. equalis Hine was most active in the crepuscular period after sunset. Malais traps baited with CO2 accurately reflected the host-seeking activity of these 8 species.

Hollander, A. L. and R. E. Wright (1980). "Impact of tabanids on cattle: blood meal size and preferred feeding sites." Journal of Economic Entomology 73(3): 431-433.
	During studies carried out in Oklahoma in 1978 and 1979, the blood-meal sizes for several species of tabanids were determined as follows: Chrysops callidus O.-S. 22.8 mg, Hybomitra lasiophthalma (Macq.) 82.8 mg, Tabanus abactor Philip 147.4 mg, T. atratus F. 681.8 mg, T. equalis Hine 186.6 mg, T. mularis Stone 56.9 mg, T. subsimilis Bellardi 65.6 mg, and T. sulcifrons Macq. 367.4 mg. During periods of peak populations, the blood loss in cattle caused by tabanids was estimated at more than 200 ml/animal per day, based on the number engorging. Each species had a preferred site for landing and biting, which limited inter- and intraspecific interaction.

Holmes, S. P., J. E. Slosser, et al. (1998). "Chaining as a control method for Tabanus abactor in the Texas Rolling Plains." Southwestern Entomologist 23(3): 283-284.
	This study evaluated the effects of 2 chaining treatments, a conventional surface level chaining and chaining with striking height elevated to 0.6 by a roller ball, on the adult T. abactor population. 12 plots on 2 ranches in Foard Co., Texas, USA, were assigned treatments, each treatment being replicated 2 times at each ranch. Treatments were carried out on 4-5 March 1997. Mean numbers of flies caught by traps were lower than the controls for both treatments. Roller-ball chaining felled most of the trees in the treated plot, but did not significantly lower the activity of female flies as did standard chaining. It is concluded that in order to be effective at controlling populations of T. abactor, any brush control measures used must reduce canopy cover below 20%.

Hoppe, K. L., J. W. Dillwith, et al. (1990). "Identification of horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) by analysis of cuticular hydrocarbons." Journal of Medical Entomology 27: 480-486.
	Thin-layer chromatography of the cuticular lipids of horse flies from Oklahoma revealed that hydrocarbon was the major lipid class present. The hydrocarbon fraction was composed of n-alkanes and methyl branched alkanes with only a small amount of alkenes present. Gas chromatography of the isolated cuticular hydrocarbons from a single species, Tabanus abactor Philip, showed no major differences in the profiles between individuals or between the sexes. Analysis of extracts of fresh, frozen, and pinned specimens yielded nearly identical hydrocarbon profiles. Profiles of several species were examined and found to be unique for each. Three species with similar morphological characteristics and similar geographical ranges. Tabanus abdominalis F., T. limbatinevris Macquart, and T. sulcifrons Macquart, were differentiated easily by comparison of the hydrocarbon profiles.

Hornok, S., G. Földvári, et al. (2008). "Molecular identification of Anaplasma marginale and rickettsial endosymbionts in blood-sucking flies (Diptera: Tabanidae, Muscidae) and hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) " Veterinary Parasitology 154(3-4): 354-359.
	In an attempt to identify the main vector and possible transmission routes of Anaplasma spp. in a region of Hungary with high prevalence of ovine and bovine anaplasmosis, DNA was extracted from 316 haematophagous arthropods (individually or in pools), including 4 species of ixodid ticks, 6 species of tabanid flies and hornflies. Midichloria-like organisms were identified with PCR (amplifying a portion of the 16S rRNA gene) and sequencing from Dermacentor marginatus and Ixodes ricinus. Significantly higher 16S positive D. marginatus individuals were collected in March than in April, suggesting earlier questing of ticks that contain rickettsial agents (thus endosymbionts). Midichloria- and Wolbachia-like organisms were also found in randomly caught horse flies (Tabanus bovinus and T. tergestinus) as well as hornflies (Haematobia irritans), respectively, with 97–99% similarity to sequences deposited in the GenBank. Although all ticks were negative in the Anaplasma spp.-specific msp4 PCR, four individuals of T. bovinus collected near to grazing cattle were positive for Anaplasma marginale. The results of the present study provide the first molecular evidence for the potential mechanical vector role of T. bovinus in the transmission of A. marginale, and broaden the range of haematophagous arthropods harbouring Midichloria-like bacteria, for the first time in any Dermacentor or Tabanus species.

Horváth, G., J. Majer, et al. (2008). "Ventral polarization vision in tabanids: horseflies and deerflies (Diptera: Tabanidae) are attracted to horizontally polarized light." Naturwissenschaften 95(11): 1093-1100.
	Adult tabanid flies (horseflies and deerflies) are terrestrial and lay their eggs onto marsh plants near bodies of fresh water because the larvae develop in water or mud. To know how tabanids locate their host animals, terrestrial rendezvous sites and egg-laying places would be very useful for control measures against them, because the hematophagous females are primary/secondary vectors of some severe animal/human diseases/parasites. Thus, in choice experiments performed in the field we studied the behavior of tabanids governed by linearly polarized light. We present here evidence for positive polarotaxis, i.e., attraction to horizontally polarized light stimulating the ventral eye region, in both males and females of 27 tabanid species. The novelty of our findings is that positive polarotaxis has been described earlier only in connection with the water detection of some aquatic insects ovipositing directly into water. A further particularity of our discovery is that in the order Diptera and among blood-sucking insects the studied tabanids are the first known species possessing ventral polarization vision and definite polarization-sensitive behavior with known functions. The polarotaxis in tabanid flies makes it possible to develop new optically luring traps being more efficient than the existing ones based on the attraction of tabanids by the intensity and/or color of reflected light.

Horvath, G. and D. Varju (1997). "Polarization pattern of freshwater habitats recorded by video polarimetry in red, green and blue spectral ranges and its relevance for water detection by aquatic insects." Journal of Experimental Biology 200(7): 1155-1163.
	The reflection-polarization patterns of small freshwater habitats under clear skies can be recorded by video polarimetry in the red, green and blue ranges of the spectrum. In this paper, the simple technique of rotating- analyzer video polarimetry is described and its advantages and disadvantages are discussed. It is shown that the polarization patterns of small water bodies are very variable in the different spectral ranges depending on the illumination conditions. Under clear skies and in the visible range of the spectrum, flat water surfaces reflecting light from the sky are most strongly polarized in the blue range. Under an overcast sky radiating diffuse white light, small freshwater habitats are characterized by a high level of horizontal polarization at or near the Brewster angle in all spectral ranges except that in which the contribution of subsurface reflection is large. In a given spectral range and at a given angle of view, the direction of polarization is horizontal if the light mirrored from the surface dominates and vertical if the light returning from the subsurface regions dominates. The greater the degree of dominance, the higher the net degree of polarization, the theoretical maximum value being 100 % at the Brewster angle for the horizontal E-vector component and approximately 30 % at flat viewing angles for the vertical E-vector component. We have made video polarimetric measurements of differently coloured fruits and vegetables to demonstrate that polarized light in nature follows this general rule. The consequences of the reflection-polarization patterns of small bodies of water for water detection by polarization-sensitive aquatic insects are discussed.

Hribar, L. J. (1992). "Tabanus wilsoni Pechuman a new host for gregarines." Journal of the Florida Mosquito Control Association 63(1): 58-59.
	Gametocysts and oocysts of a gregarine similar in appearance to Cometoides pechumani were found in the alimentary tracts of 3 adult females of T. wilsoni in Louisiana, USA.

Hribar, L. J. and L. D. Foil (1994). "Color and uV reflectance of canopy traps for collecting horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Louisiana." Bulletin of the Society for Vector Ecology 19: 49-52.
	The effect of colour and ultraviolet light (UV) reflectance on the catch of horse flies in carbon dioxide baited canopy traps was studied in south-central Louisiana, USA. Black traps collected significantly more Tabanus americanus, T. fuscicostatus, T. limbatinevris, T. lineola group and T. proximus than did blue or red traps. T. wilsoni was captured in greater numbers in black traps than in red traps, whereas there was no difference between catch of this species in black and blue traps or in blue and red traps. There was no difference in the number of flies captured by the different coloured traps for Chlorotabanus crepuscularis, Chrysops spp., Leucotabanus annulatus, T. equalis and T. pallidescens. More flies on the T. lineola group were captured in traps with increased or decreased UV reflectance than in control traps. Traps with decreased UV reflectance captured more T. proximus than did control traps, but there were no differences in number of T. proximus captured in control traps and traps with increased UV reflectance, nor between traps with increased or decreased UV reflectance. Black traps are most effective for collecting Tabanidae in southern Louisiana during midsummer. There appears to be little effect of UV reflectance on collection of most species of Tabanidae.

Hribar, L. J., M. N. Hribar, et al. (2003). "Seasonal abundance of Diachlorus ferrugatus (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Monroe Count, Florida." Florida Scientist 66: 52-54.
	
Hribar, L. J., D. J. LePrince, et al. (1991). "Design for a canopy trap for collecting horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 7: 657-659.
	A design for a canopy trap for collecting horse flies is described. The collecting heads can easily be changed since the collar is fixed in place and supports the trap. The collar allows an unobstructed pathway to the collecting head. The center pole has a sliding steel rod that allows adjustment of canopy height upon installation in one operation.

Hribar, L. J., D. J. LePrince, et al. (1991). "Increasing horse fly (Diptera: Tabanidae) catch in canopy traps by reducing ultraviolet light reflectance." Journal of Medical Entomology 28: 874-877.
	Application of UV Killer, a commercially available product which reduced ultraviolet reflectance from cloth fabrics, increased the catch of tabanids in canopy traps by 24% and in CO2-baited traps by 30%. Catch decreased as ultraviolet reflectance increased during the experiment.

Hribar, L. J., D. J. LePrince, et al. (1992). "Ammonia as an attractant for adult Hybomitra lasiophthalma (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 29: 346-348.
	Ammonia and carbon dioxide were evaluated as attractants in canopy traps for Hybomitra lasiophthalma (Macquart). Ammonia-baited traps collected 2.5 times as many flies as did unbaited traps (33.27 versus 12.93 per trap per day). Over 45 times as many flies were captured in carbon dioxide-baited traps as in unbaited traps (1,630.64 versus 35.82 per trap per day). Both ammonia and carbon dioxide are effective attractants for H. lasiophthalma.

Hribar, L. J., D. J. Leprince, et al. (1992). "Feeding sites of some Louisiana Tabanidae (Diptera) on fenvalerate-treated and control cattle." Journal of Economic Entomology 85: 2279-2285.
	Feeding patterns of Tabanidae on Jersey bullocks in southcentral Louisiana were investigated during 1988-1990. Diel activity was highest in late morning and early afternoon. Numbers of tabanids attacking animals sprayed with a 0.002% fenvalerate solution and untreated controls did not differ. Preferences in feeding sites were observed for eight horse fly species (Tabanus americanus, T. fuscicostatus, T. pallidescens, T. wilsoni, T. lineola, T. limbatinevris, T. trimaculatus, Leucotabanus annulatus). A descending anterior-to-posterior trend was noted for the number of tabanid flies feeding on host animals. Number of tabanids feeding on the front legs was highly correlated with number of flies on the entire body. The number of flies occurring on the body can be estimated from the number of flies on the front legs.

Huchzermeyer, F. W., M. L. Penrith, et al. (2001). "Multifactorial mortality in bongos and other wild ungulates in the north of the Congo Republic." Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 68: 263-269.
	
Hudson, A. and H. J. Teskey (1976). "Morphological and biochemical characteristics of two forms of Hybomitra typhus (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Canadian Entomologist 108(7): 737-740.
	The tabanid Hybomitra typhus (Whitney) is widely distributed throughout the northern zones of all Canadian provinces and territories, in the north-western United States, Alaska, Minnesota and Michigan and in the east along the Appalachian highlands to South Carolina. It is known to attack man and livestock, and the larvae have been found in saturated moss from bogs, swamps and lake shores. It is variable in colour. Two morphologically distinct forms recorded in 1961 flying together at a large Sphagnum bog near Ottawa are referred to as forms A and B. They were again taken flying together in a large bog in Prescott, Ontario, in July 1974. Morphological characters used to distinguish the forms, which have been clearly segregated by size and colour characters, are described in this paper, and an electrophoretic examination of enzyme variants at the esterase loci, which provides additional diagnostic characters, is recorded. The combined data indicate that flies recorded as H. typhus comprise more than one species. The common form B predominated in mid-July 1974, whereas the variant form A occurred in much greater numbers in collections in late June 1975.

Hudson, J. E., K. D. S. Kathuria, et al. (1996). "Tsetse survey in the Lunsemfwa Valley, Zambia." Zambia Journal of Science and Technology 6(1): 20-27.
	Tsetse were collected in the Shikabeta-Mboshya area from Jan. to Nov. 1978, close to a known sleeping sickness focus, by human bait, a moving vehicle, stationary screen traps and searching houses and shelters. Many Glossina morsitans were captured throughout the area and a few G. pallidipes near streams. Tabanidae of 14 spp. [Atylotus agrestis, Philoliche compactus, P. conata, Tabanus copemani, T. gratus, T. par, T. pullulus, T. sugens, T. taeniola, T. unilineatus, Haematopota davevi, H. insidiatrix, H. nitidifacies and H. rubens] were also caught. Trypanosoma vivax infections were found in 8.7% of 519 female and 6.1% of 2228 male G. morsitans, and in 3.5% of 28 female and 6.6% of 121 male G. pallidipes dissected. One G. morsitans male (0.04%) was infected with T. congolense.

Hughes, R. D., P. Duncan, et al. (1981). "Interactions between camargue horses and horseflies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Bulletin of Entomological Research 71: 227-242.
	
Hugh-Jones, M. E. and V. De Vos (2002). "Anthrax and wildlife." Revue scientifique et technique Office internationale des Epizooties 21: 359-383.
	
Hunter, F. F. and A. M. Ossowski (1999). "Honeydew sugars in wild-caught female horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 36: 896-899.
	
Hussein, H. S., N. A. Al Asgah, et al. (1991). "The blood parasites of indigenous livestock in Saudi Arabia." Arab Gulf Journal of Scientific Research 9(3): 143-160.
	The blood parasites of indigenous camels (n=310), sheep (331), goats (348) and cattle (43) were investigated in several localities in Saudi Arabia that are well isolated from any possible mixing with imported animals. Trypanosoma evansi (at a prevalence of 13.2%) and Eperythrozoon sp. (3.9%) were detected in camels. Sheep and goats were infected with Theileria ovis (19.9%), T. hirci (6.9%) and Eperythrozoon ovis (3%), and cattle with E. wenyoni (18.6%), T. annulata (20.9%) and a nonpathogenic Theileria sp. (14.0%). Apart from Trypanosoma evansi and Theileria annulata, all the parasite species are reported for the first time from Saudi Arabia. The detection of an Eperythrozoon sp. in camel is the first from this host. T. ovis and E. ovis were reported from all provinces studied, whereas T. hirci was confined to eastern and northern parts of the Kingdom. E. wenyoni was found in both Hofuf and Gizan, but T. annulata occurred only in Hofuf and the nonpathogenic Theileria sp. only in Gizan. Areas of highest camel trypanosomiasis prevalence were heavily infested with tabanid flies whose role in the transmission of the disease is discussed. Atylotus farinosus (from Hofuf, Al-Hafr, Al-Kharj and Buraydah) and A. agrestis (from Gizan, Samitah and Najran) were identified during the study; these are the first reports from these localities. Tabanid flies were rarely seen in any of the other localities studied. The pathological effects of the reported blood parasites on their hosts are discussed together with the role of ixodid ticks in the transmission of Theileria.

Iide, P. (1988). "Morphologic and taxonomic studies on the Brazilian Scionini: The genus Fidena: Part II. (Diptera, Tabanidae, Pangoniinae)." Revista Brasileira de Biologia 48(1): 139-154.
	The author redescribes males of Fidena (Fidera) Fusca (Thunberg, 1827) and describes males of F. (F.) rufibasis Kroeber, 1931, with special reference to the genitalia. Intra-especific variations, inter-especific differences and characters found in both species are studied for taxonomic purposes. Synonymy, geographic distribution and doubtful type-locality of F. (F.) fusca are also commented.

Iide, P. (1989). "Studies on the Neotropical Scionini of the genus Fidena: The subgenus Leptofidena (Diptera, Tabanidae, Pangoniinae)." Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 84, Suppl. 4: 267-274.
	The author redescribes the males of Fidena (Leptofidena) morio (Wulp, 1881) based on details of external morphology and of the dissected genitalia hitherto not studied.

Inaoka, T. (1992). "Reproductive life histories of hematophagous tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Hokkaido with special reference to their autogeny." Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology 43(3): 177-193.
	Developmental sequences of terminal follicles in laboratory-reared females and/or various reproductive characteristics, e.g. parity, follicular development and egg retention, in field-caught females of tabanids were observed to determine the modes of their reproduction. Out of 25 species from Hokkaido, Japan, (including 2 subspecies) studied, 12 proved to be autogenous in the first gonotrophic cycle (Chrysops nigripes, C. vanderwulpi kitaensis, Hybomitra borealis, H. olsoi, Atylotus sp., Hirosia sapporoensis, H. iyoensis, Tabanus kinoshitai, T. rufidens, T. fulvimedioides, Haematopota tamerlani, H. tristis) while 13 were anautogenous (C. japonicus, C. suavis, C. vanderwulpi yamatoensis, Hybomitra tarandina, H. distinguenda, A. horvathi, Tabanus chrysurus, T. sapporoenus, T. katoi, T. trigeminus, T. pallidiventris, T. nipponicus, T. trigonus). Most of the local populations of autogenous species (or subspecies) exhibited >90% parity, whereas average parous rates of anautogenous species were <50%. Criteria were proposed to distinguish between autogenous and anautogenous populations, based on the parity of field-caught females. Seasonal changes of parous rates are presented for several anautogenous species in different habitats representing different densities of probable host animals. Different host densities at the collection sites did not necessarily cause different patterns in seasonality of parous rates in host-seeking populations. Terminal follicles in ovaries among field-caught females ranged between G.G. Mer's stages I-V, with most flies in stage II, I-II or I, but stages III-V follicles were rather frequently observed in a few autogenous species. The rates of appearance of parous females with retained eggs were higher in the species which had a larger number of ovarioles.

Inaoka, T., E. Hori, et al. (1988). "Morphological characteristics of the anal segment in the identification of the larvae of Tabanus-species (Diptera, Tabanidae) collected from Nigeria." Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology 39(3): 277-282.
	Tabanid larvae belonging to the genus Tabanus collected from Nigeria were classified into 14 morphologically different types based on the characteristics of the anal segment. Seven of these types proved to correspond to already known species: T. lubutuensis, T. besti, T. triquetrornatus, T. taeniola, T. biguttatus, T. gratus and T. argenteus. The anal segment of the larvae of 6 species, except T. argenteus, is described and illustrated. This is the first report on the use of morphological characteristics for identification of larvae of Tabanus species from Nigeria.

Inaoka, T., E. Hori, et al. (1988). "Morphology and identification of Chrysops larvae from Nigeria." Medical and Veterinary Entomology 2: 141-152.
	Mature larvae of four Afrotropical species of Chrysops (Diptera: Tabanidae): C. centurionis Austen, C. distinctipennis Austen, C. longicornis Macquart and C. silaceus Austen, are described and illustrated from specimens collected in Nigeria, identified by rearing associated adult flies. The descriptions pay special attention to the value of ultrastructural characters, such as cuticular striations, observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

Inouye, D. W., J. A. Lanum, et al. (1980). "The effects of nonsugar nectar constituents on estimates of nectar energy content." Ecology 61: 992-996.
	
Iranpour, M. and T. D. Galloway (2002). Chrysops, Hybomitra and Tabanus spp., horse and deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae). Biological control programmes in Canada 1981-2000, Wallingford, UK, CABI International.
	
Iranpour, M. and T. D. Galloway (2004). "Three new Nearctic species of Telenomus (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) attacking Tabanidae eggs." Canadian Entomologist 136: 43-60.
	
Iranpour, M. and T. D. Galloway (2008). "Prevalence of four species of egg parasitoids attacking tabanid eggs in Manitoba, Canada." Canadian Entomologist 140(5): 603-610.
	Egg masses of the horse fly, Hybomitra nitidifrons nuda (McDunnough), and the deer fly, Chrysops aestuans Wulp (Diptera: Tabanidae), were collected during the summers of 1996–2000 from five different locations in southern Manitoba. On average, hymenopterous egg parasitoids were reared from more than 90% of collected egg masses. Telenomus hybomitrae Iranpour and Galloway and (or) Telenomus utilis Iranpour and Galloway (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae: Telenominae) emerged from multilayered egg masses of H. n. nuda. However, Trichogramma semblidis (Aurivillius) (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) and (or) Telenomus chrysopsis Iranpour and Galloway were reared from single-layered egg masses of C. aestuans. In H. n. nuda egg masses, more than 33% of individual eggs were parasitized and more than an additional 35% were apparently damaged by the two telenomine parasitoids. In C. aestuans egg masses, approximately 40% of individual eggs were parasitized and 18% produced neither parasitoids nor larvae. 

Iranpour, M., A. M. Schurko, et al. (2004). "DNA fingerprinting of tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) and their respective egg masses using PCR - restriction fragment profiling." Canadian Entomologist 136: 605-619.
	Polymerase chain reaction and subsequent restriction fragment profiling analysis were used to associate collected tabanid egg masses with their respective species of adult horse flies and deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Manitoba, Canada. The ribosomal DNA (rDNA) intergenic spacer between the 28S and 18S ribosomal RNA genes was used successfully to differentiate 34 species of adult tabanids representing five genera: Atylotus (1 sp.), Chrysops (10 spp.), Haematopota (1 sp.), Hybomitra (17 spp.), and Tabanus (5 spp.). rDNA was a suitable molecular target for identifying tabanid species because of the high level of interspecific variation when comparing fragment profiles among different species, and the corresponding minimal intraspecific variation among individuals of the same species. Restriction fragment profiles from 56 field-collected tabanid egg masses were compared with those previously obtained from adults of known species. Egg masses of five species were identified: Hybomitra lasiophthalma (Macquart), Hybomitra nitidifrons nuda (McDunnough), Chrysops aestuans van der Wulp, Chrysops excitans Walker, and Chrysops mitis Osten Sacken. We also provide physical descriptions of these tabanid egg masses along with pictures.

Issel, C. J. and L. D. Foil (1984). "Studies on equine infectious anemia virus transmission by insects." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 184(3): 293-297.
	There are several factors involved in the mechanical transmission of equine infectious anemia (EIA) virus by insects. Large hematophagous insects, especially tabanids, which feed from extravascular sites (ie, pool feeding) appear to be the most efficient vectors. The biology of the host-seeking and blood-feeding behavior of the vectors are important variables that have been overlooked in the mechanical transmission of pathogens like EIA virus. The biology, population levels, and diversity of the vectors, in addition to the clinical status and proximity of EIA virus-infected horses maintained with susceptible animals are all important variables that contribute to EIA virus transmission in nature

Issel, C. J., K. Rushlow, et al. (1988). "A perspective on equine infectious anemia with an emphasis on vector transmission and genetic analysis." Veterinary Microbiology 17(3): 251-286.
	Knowledge of equine infectious anaemia (EIA) and its diagnosis is reviewed, with particular emphasis on comparative genetic analysis of the virus and the dynamics of vector transmission (which, incidentally, will be of comparative value in assessing human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission by insects). Stomoxys calcitrans, Chrysops spp., Tabanus spp. and Hybomitra spp. have been shown to be capable of mechanical transmission of EIA virus. The clinical status and corresponding viraemia of positive horses and the amount of blood transferred between virus-positive and -negative horses are the most important factors affecting transmission. Distance between infected and susceptible animals, and the total vector populations, affect the amount of blood transferred.

Ivashkin, V. M. and L. A. Khromova (1983). "Nematodes of farm animals and their vectors, the Diptera." 248 pp.
	The first chapter of this book (pp.4-99) deals with the taxonomy and morphology of Spirurida which use Diptera as intermediate hosts. 46 species belonging to 11 genera and 6 families are described and information is given on their localization, hosts and world distribution. The biology and life cycles of these nematodes are described in Chapter 2 (pp.99-177). Chapter 3 (pp. 177-219) deals with the ecology and species composition of Diptera (Muscidae, Anthomyiidae, Drosophilidae, Tabanidae and Hippoboscidae) that are intermediate hosts of spirurid nematodes. The 4th and last chapter (pp. 219-233) describes the diseases caused by these nematodes in vertebrate hosts. The book is well illustrated and contains many tables and differential keys. There is no index.

Iwuala, M. O. E. and J. O. A. Onyeka (1977). "The types and distribution patterns of domestic flies in Nsukka, East Central State, Nigeria." Environmental Entomology 6(1): 43-49.
	A survey of the domestic fly population of Nsukka, a semi-urban university town in the Guinea-savanna belt of West Africa, showed infestation of human and animal shelters with at least 19 species, comprising 5 types of biting flies (Glossina spp., Haematobia sp., Stomoxys sp., Chrysops spp. and Hippobosca sp.); and several types of non-biting flies (including Musca spp., Lucilia sp., Sarcophaga sp. and Oestrus sp.)Preferred breeding sites and areas of aggregation of the insects were studied against the background of the relative fly infestation rates of such habitats as human homes, animal sheds and abattoirs; food houses; sewage and refuse dumps, and open air locations. Also, variations in the diurnal, daily and monthly availability of the flies were noted and related to seasonal changes in temperature and humidity and to ecological aspects of the insects' life-cycles.

Jacobson, N. R., E. J. Hansens, et al. (1981). "Electrophoretic detection of a sibling species of the salt marsh greenhead, Tabanus nigrovittatus." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 74(6): 602-605.
	Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq., long suspected of being composed of several cryptic species, was examined by starch gel electrophoresis of enzymes. Adults from 4 localities in New Jersey were separable into 2 genetically distinct species, based on 3 fixed locus differences. Total length was significantly different between the 2 species. The larger species is probably the 'T. sp. 3' referred to in previous studies.

Jaenson, T. G., R. C. B. D. Santos, et al. (1991). "Attraction of Glossina longipalpis (Diptera: Glossinidae) in Guinea-Bissau (West Africa) to odor-baited biconical traps." Journal of Medical Entomology 28(2): 284-286.
	The catches of tsetse flies, Stomoxys, and tabanids in biconical traps baited with different synthetic odors were compared in the Jopa-Cobiana Forest, northwestern Guinea-Bissau. Thirty-six traps, the baits of which were randomly interchanged each of 10 sampling days, were baited either with (a) 1-octen-3-ol (octenol) + phenols (4-methylphenol + 3-propylphenol) + acetone + N'dama cow urine ("urine"), (b) octenol + phenols + acetone, (c) octenol + phenols, (d) acetone, (e) acetone + urine, or (f) urine. Six of the traps were not baited (controls). A total of 3,172 tsetse flies (96% Glossina longipalpis Wiedemann, 3% G. morsitans submorsitans Newstead and 1% G. palpalis gambiensis Vanderplank), 286 Stomoxys, and 571 Tabanidae was captured. G. longipalpis was caught in statistically greater numbers in traps baited with octenol + phenols + acetone. Traps baited with octenol + phenols, with or without acetone, caught the greatest numbers of tabanids. N'dama urine did not increase the catch of G. longipalpis. Stomoxys was not significantly attracted to any of the odors.

James, H. G. (1952). "Natural control of Tabanidae (Diptera) in the region of Churchill, Manitoba." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Ontario 82: 70-74.
	
Jamnback, H. and W. Wall (1959). "The common salt-marsh Tabanidae of Long Island, New York." New York State Museum and Science Service Bulletin 375.
	
Janzen, T. A. and F. F. Hunter (1998). "Honeydew sugars in wild-caught female deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 35: 685-689.
	Female deer flies (Chrysops spp.) were collected from 2 habitats in Algonquin Provincial Park, ON. Using thin-layer chromatography, 11 sugars were detected in the digestive tracts of these flies; these occurred in 41 different combinations. We argue that combinations including melezitose, stachyose, or both can be used to indicate when flies recently have fed on homopteran honeydew. Accordingly, 85.7% of Chrysops excitans (n = 49) and 61.1% of Chrysops mitis (n = 18) collected from an abandoned airfield and 69.8% of C. excitans (n = 53) and 60.0% of C. mitis (n = 15) from a bog habitat tested positive for these honeydew indicator sugars. The difference between species was significant at the airfield only. Possible reasons for this habitat-dependent difference are discussed.

Jensen, R. E., L. Simpson, et al. (2008). "What happens when Trypanosoma brucei leaves Africa?" Trends in Parasitology 24(10): 428-431.
	Julius Lukeš and co-workers evaluated the evolutionary origin of Trypanosoma equiperdum and Trypanosoma evansi, parasites that cause horse and camel diseases. Although similar to T. brucei, the sleeping-sickness parasite, these trypanosomes do not cycle through the tsetse fly and have been able to spread beyond Africa. Transmission occurs sexually, or via blood-sucking flies or vampire bats. They concluded that these parasites, which resemble yeast petite mutants, are T. brucei sub-species, which have evolved recently through changes in mitochondrial DNA.

Jezek, J. (1977). "Keys to the last instar larvae and pupae of some European Tabanidae (Diptera)." Acta Entomologica Bohemoslovaca 74(5): 339-344.
	Keys are presented for the last-instar larvae and pupae of 25 species of 6 European genera of Tabanidae; full descriptions of some of the species are still in the process of publication. The species represent just over 40% of the tabanids known from Czechoslovakia.

Jezek, J. (1987). "Checklist of Czechoslovak insects II (Diptera)." Acta Faunistica Entomologica Musei Nationalis Pragae 18: 1-341.
	\Checklists of the Diptera of Czechoslovakia are presented, arranged by family. Geographical distribution in Bohemia, Moravia and Slovakia is indicated, as are new distribution records. Families covered include Psychodidae (J. Jezek and J. Halgos), Culicidae (J. Minar and J. Kramar), Chironomidae (J. Lellak and B. Losos), Ceratopogonidae (I. Orszagh and J. Chalupsky), Simuliidae (J. Knoz), Cecidomyiidae (M. Skuhrava), Athericidae and Rhagionidae (R. Rozkosny and K. Spitzer), Tabanidae (M. Chvala), Phoridae (B. Mocek and J. Zuska), Sciomyzidae (R. Rozkosny), Sepsidae (J. Zuska), Tephritidae (J. Dirlbek, K. Dirlbek and O. Dirlbekova), Piophilidae (J. Zuska), Agromyzidae (M. Vala), Sphaeroceridae (J. Rohacek), Chloropidae (J. Zuska), Scathophagidae (F. Sifner), Fanniidae and Muscidae (F. Gregor), Hippoboscidae (J. Chalupsky and D. Povolny), Nycteribiidae (K. Hurka), Calliphoridae (F. Gregor), Sarcophagidae (J. Cepelak, M. Slameckova and M. Stanek), and Gasterophilidae and Oestridae (J. Minar and D. Povolny).

Jobling, B. (1987). Anatomical drawings of biting flies. London, UK, British Museum of Natural History and Wellcome Trust.
	
Johnson, A. W. and K. L. Hays (1973). "Some predators of immature Tabanidae (Diptera) in Alabama." Environmental Entomology 2(6): 1116-1117.
	Studies carried out in 1969 and 1970 on predation on the egg-masses of species of Chrysops in a pond near Auburn, Alabama, in May-July showed that 3.1% were destroyed in this manner. Adults and larvae of the Coccinellid beetle Ceratomegilla Coleomegilla) maculata (Deg.) were often observed feeding on the egg-masses. Larvae of the arctiid moth Nola sorghiella Ril. and one adult of the fly Sepedon sp. were also observed feeding on them. One solitary sandpiper was found on stomach analysis to contain a Tabanus larva.

Johnson, S. D. (2000). "Batesian mimicry in the non-rewarding orchid Disa pulchra, and its consequences for pollinator behaviour." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 71(1): 119-132.
	The non-rewarding flowers of the South African orchid Disa pulchra are remarkably similar in morphology and spectral reflectance to the flowers of a sympatric nectar-producing iris, Watsonia lepida. Field observations indicated that both D. pulchra and W. lepida are pollinated by the long-tongued fly, Philoliche aethiopica (Tabanidae). The hypothesis that D. pulchra is a floral mimic of W. lepida was supported by choice experiments, which showed that, in terms of visits to inflorescences, flies do not discriminate between the two species. However, flies probed fewer flowers and spent less time on D. pulchra inflorescences than on Watsonia inflorescences. Thus the absence of nectar in the flowers of D. pulchra may reduce the risk of geitonogamy and pollen discounting. A breeding system experiment showed that fruits of D. pulchra that arise from self-pollination contain relatively few viable seeds compared with outcrossed fruits. These findings support the hypothesis that deception in orchids evolved under selection for more efficient mating systems.

Johnson, S. D. (2004). "An overview of plant-pollinator relationships in southern Africa." International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 24(1): 45-54.
	
Johnson, S. D. and S. Morita (2006). "Lying to Pinocchio: floral deception in an orchid pollinated by long-proboscid flies." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 152(3): 271-278.
	Plants that lack floral rewards may nevertheless attract pollinators if their flowers sufficiently resemble those of rewarding plants. Flowers of the South African terrestrial orchid Disa nervosa are similar in floral dimensions and spectral reflectance to those of a sympatric nectar-producing irid (Watsonia densiflora s.l.). Observations showed that the orchid and Watsonia share the same pollinator, a long-proboscid tabanid fly Philoliche aethiopica. These flies visited inflorescences of both species during their foraging bouts and most (64%) observed or captured on Watsonia inflorescences carried pollinaria of the orchid on their proboscides. They probe an average of 6.3 flowers on Watsonia inflorescences, but just 1.9 flowers on the Disa inflorescences, a behaviour which would strongly promote cross-pollination in the self-compatible orchid. The orchid generally achieves high levels of pollination success, with approximately 50% of flowers receiving or exporting pollen at some sites. Pollination success was also high at one site that lacked Watsonia plants, suggesting that the orchid does not have an obligate dependence on Watsonia. Its pollination system may therefore be characterized as intermediate between generalized food deception and specific floral mimicry.

Johnson, S. D. and K. E. Steiner (1995). "Long-proboscid fly pollination of two orchids in the Cape Drakensberg mountains, South Africa." Plant Systematics and Evolution 195: 169-175.
	
Johnson, S. D. and K. E. Steiner (1997). "Long-tongued fly pollination and evolution of floral spur length in the Disa draconis complex (Orchidaceae)." Evolution 51(1): 45-53.
	Field studies in South Africa showed that floral spur length in the Disa draconis complex (Orchidaceae) varies enormously between populations in the southern mountains (means = 32-38 mm), lowland sandplain (mean = 48 mm), and northern mountains (means = 57-72 mm). We tested the hypothesis that divergence in spur length has resulted from selection exerted through pollinator proboscis length. Short-spurred plants in several southern mountain populations, as well as long-spurred plants in one northern mountain population, were pollinated by a horsefly, Philoliche rostrata (Tabanidae), with a proboscis length that varied from 22 to 35 mm among sites. Long-spurred plants on the sandplain were pollinated by the tanglewing fly, Moegistorynchus longirostris (Nemestrinidae), which has a very long proboscis (mean = 57 mm). Selection apparently favors long spurs in sandplain plants, as artificial shortening of spurs resulted in a significant decline in pollen receipt and fruit set, although pollinaria removal was not significantly affected. Fruit set in the study populations was limited by pollen availability, which further suggests that selection on spur length occurs mainly through the female component of reproductive success.

Jones, C. M. and D. W. Anthony (1964). "The Tabanidae (Diptera) of Florida." United States Department of Agriculture Technical bulletin 1295: 1-85.
	
Jones, H. (1922). "Some notes on the habits of male Tabanidae." The Entomologist 55: 40-42.
	
Juliano, S. A. (1981). "Trichogramma spp. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) as egg parasitoids of Sepedon fuscipennis (Diptera: Sciomyzidae) and other aquatic Diptera." Canadian Entomologist 113(4): 271-279.
	At least 2 species of Trichogramma were found parasitising the eggs of Sepedon fuscipennis hlw. (a sciomyzid that preys on aquatic snails, including Helisoma spp., Physa spp. and Lymnaea spp.) in fresh-water habitats in central New York State. T. julianoi Platner & Oatman parasitised S. fuscipennis and the sciomyzid Elgiva sundewalli Kloet & Hincks. A species near to T. californicum Nagaraja & Nagarkatti parasitised S. fuscipennis, E. sundewalli and Tetanocera spp. Trichogramma julianoi was most active in early and late summer, and the other species of Trichogramma was most active in mid- and late summer. Another undescribed species similar to T. semblidis (Auriv.) occurred in the same habitats but did not parasitise S. fuscipennis; its primary hosts were stratiomyids. The mortality of eggs of S. fuscipennis due to Trichogramma varied over the summer and reached 43.6% in late July and early August. A list of parasites reared from the eggs of insects in at least 10 families in 4 orders is given, and includes Trichogramma and Telenomus in Chrysops spp. and other tabanids.

Kangwagye, T. N. (1973). "Diurnal and nocturnal biting activity of flies (Diptera) in western Uganda." Bulletin of Entomological Research 62: 17-29.
	Day and night catches of biting flies (excluding Culicids) were made from bullock, buffalo and at light near Lake Edward, western Uganda, between July 1966 and August 1967. The 39 species caught were classified according to the time of day at which they bit. The seven groups and the most commonly caught species are as follows: group 1, Ceratopogonids (purely nocturnal) and Glossina fuscipleuris Aust., Stomoxys ochrosoma Speiser and Haematobosca squalida (Grunb.) (diurnal and nocturnal); group 2 (early morning peak), Haematobia minuta (Bez.), H. spinigera Mall. and H. thirouxi (Roub.); group 3 (mid-morning peak), females of Tabanus taeniola P. de B. and T. thoracinus P. de B.; group 4 (mid-morning and late evening peaks), Haematobosca latifrons (Mall.) and males of G. pallidipes Aust.; group 5 (early morning and evening peaks), Stomoxys taeniata Big., S. nigra Macq., S. inornata Grunb. and S. omega Newst. and females of Haematopota brunnescens Ric. and H. patellicorne (End.); group 6 (midday to mid-afternoon peak), females of G. pallidipes, H. brucei Aust., T. par Wlk. and Chrysops distinctipennis Aust.; and group 7 (progressive increase in biting from morning to evening), G. fuscipes Newst. and S. calcitrans (L.) [cf. RAE/B 54, p. 35].

Kangwagye, T. N. (1974). "The seasonal incidence of biting flies (Diptera) in Ruwenzori National Park and Kigezi Game Reserve, Uganda." Bulletin of Entomological Research 63: 535-549.
	Between January 1965 and August 1967 biting flies were caught in Langridge and Fredeen traps [cf. RAE/B 59, 139] and from bait animals in and near the Rwenzori National Park (formerly the Queen Elizabeth National Park) in western Uganda. Catches were recorded daily, and monthly catches (geometric means) of the species most frequent on bullocks were plotted as percentages of the year's catch. A total of 49 species was collected. Haematobia minuta (Bez.) was the only species to show a unimodal peak; this is attributed to soil conditions being suitable for the larvae during the short rains (September - November). Bimodal peaks were found in Haematopota brunnescens Ric., H. patellicorne (End.), Tabanus par Wlk., Stomoxys inornata Grunb., S. nigra nigra Macq. and Haematobosca squalida (Grunb.) (all of which appeared to be adversely affected by severe dry conditions), by T. taeniola P. de B. (in which emergence from the pupa coincided with the beginning of the rainy seasons (March-May and September-November)), by S. omega Newst. and Haematobia spinigera Mall. (which were least prevalent in the wet months of September-October), and by species of Haematopota, Tabanus, Chrysops, Stomoxys and Haematobosca (in which breeding occurred in the rainy seasons). Ill-defined cycles were shown by Chrysops distinctipennis Aust., C. longicornis Macq., S. ochrosoma Speiser and females of S. calcitrans (L.); Glossina fuscipes Newst., G. fuscipleuris Aust. and G. pallidipes Aust. were least abundant in September-October.

Kangwagye, T. N. (1977). Reactions of large mammals to biting flies in Ruwenzori National Park, Uganda. Advances in medical, veterinary and agricultural entomology in Eastern Africa, Nairobi, Kenya, East African Literature Bureau.
	From observations in the Rwenzori National Park, Uganda, in 1965-67, the reactions to biting flies of 13 of the most abundant species of wild mammals are described qualitatively. The diurnal patterns of reactions to biting flies are described from mean hourly frequency counts for buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer), Uganda Kob (Kobus kob thomasi (Adenota kob thomasi)), topi (Damaliscus korrigum ugandae) and cattle (Bos taurus). Clear peaks of activity were recorded for shivers, tail and ear flicks, head beats, and fore- and hind-limb lifts; those of tongue licks, shaking the entire body, lying down and running were not prominent. Detailed information is given on the feeding sites of Glossina and Stomoxyinae on cattle (separately for 15 species of flies), the species of biting flies caught on shot and immobilised mammals of 8 species, the feeding sites of about 20 species of tabanids and related flies on cattle, analyses of 222 blood-meals from about 12 kinds of biting flies and the disturbances caused to feeding blood-sucking insects by the reactions of cattle. The seasonal patterns reported indicate that the responses of large mammals occur throughout the year, with peaks in April-June and October-December, when the density of blood-sucking flies is highest. The rainy seasons appear responsible for the marked seasonal patterns of response, which is related to the abundance of most species of Haematopota, Tabanus, Chrysops, Stomoxys, Haematobosca and Glossina.

Kazimírová, M., Ulanová, et al. (2002). "Anticoagulant activities in salivary glands of tabanid flies." Medical and Veterinary Entomology 16: 301-309.
	Tabanid flies are telmophages (pool feeders), taking frequent and rapid bloodmeals from many different individual hosts. To investigate how they accomplish this intermittent feeding strategy, we examined the anticoagulant activities in salivary gland extracts (SGE) from 19 species representing six genera: Atylotus, Chrysops, Haematopota, Heptatoma, Hybomitra and Tabanus (Diptera: Tabanidae). Standard coagulation screen assays were used to determine thrombin time, prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time. Chromogenic substrate assays were performed for thrombin and factor Xa activity. SGE of most species (except Chrysops spp.) considerably prolonged human plasma clotting time in a dose-dependent manner, and showed potent and specific antithrombin activity in the chromogenic substrate assay. Heptatoma pellucens displayed the strongest anticoagulant activity. Specific anti-factor Xa activity in tabanid SGE was not detected. Electrophoretic profiles of SGE proteins differed between genera and species. Overall, the results suggest that tabanids have evolved at least two antihaemostatic strategies.

Keel, M. K., W. L. Goff, et al. (1995). "An assessment of the role of white-tailed deer in the epizootiology of anaplasmosis in the southeastern United States." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 31(3): 378-385.
	The role of Odocoileus virginianus in the epizootiology of anaplasmosis in the southeastern USA was examined through retrospective and prospective serosurveys and by experimental infection studies. No serum antibody reactive to Anaplasma marginale was detected with an indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) assay from any of 1376 free-ranging deer sampled from 1968 through 1990 from 13 states and Puerto Rico. 31 additional deer from 3 bovine anaplasmosis enzootic premises also were negative by IFA and Giemsa-stained blood films. 3 captive deer given A. marginale intravenously developed antibodies 38-41 days post-inoculation (DPI) and remained seropositive for the duration of the study (161-287 DPI). At 42 DPI, rickettsaemias of _0.0001% infected erythrocytes were observed in all 3 deer using DNA probe; low rickettsaemias (maximum 0.01%) persisted through 56, 63 and 87 DPI, respectively. 1 deer had a recrudescent infection from 126-146 DPI (maximum rickettsaemia 0.001%). It is believed that white-tailed deer in the southeastern USA, even though susceptible to A. marginale infection, are not exposed naturally, even at enzootic sites. Furthermore, white-tailed deer did not develop rickettsaemias sufficient to support mechanical transmission by biting flies (especially Tabanidae), which is believed to be the primary means of anaplasmosis transmission in this region.

Keiper, R. R. and J. Berger (1982). "Refuge-seeking and pest avoidance by feral horses in desert and island environments." Applied Animal Ethology 9(2): 111-120.
	Patterns of resource exploitation were examined among 2 populations of feral horses in the USA, to investigate whether harassment by insects results in the use of 'refuge' sites to minimise pest pressures. In the first study site, Assateague, a barrier island off the Atlantic coast of Maryland and Virginia, the common tabanids were Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq., T. lineola F., Chrysops fuliginosus Wied., C. atlanticus Pechuman and Stomoxys calcitrans (L.). The 2nd study site was the Granite Range, in the Great Basin Desert, Nevada, where the altitude ranges from 1291 to 2786 m. the tabanids present there were T. aegrotus O.-S., T. atratus F., C. furcatus Wlk. and C. fulvaster O.-S.. Though physical features (such as water availability and insect densities) differed between the 2 study sites, the horses displayed similar seasonal and daily patterns of habitat use. The island horses displayed less tail swishing while near the beach area and frequented this area most during the summer, especially between 10.00 and 16.00 h. In the desert, the horses grazed in meadows early in the day when the pest densities were lowest. During the afternoon, the horses rested on higher slopes and ridges. It is concluded that inshore water and snow patches are refuges for energy conservation.

Kemen, M. J., D. S. McClain, et al. (1978). "Role of horse flies in transmission of equine infectious anemia from carrier ponies." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 172(3): 360-362.
	Equine infectious anaemia virus was transmitted from an acutely ill and an inapparently infected pony to uninfected ponies by the interrupted feeding of wild-caught adults of Hybomitra lasiophthalma (Macq.), Tabanus quinquevittatus Wied. and T. sulcifrons Macq. Transmission from acutely ill ponies was not accomplished following the interrupted feeding of a single tabanid, bites of tabanids that had fed on an acutely affected pony 24 h earlier, bites of tabanids that had oviposited after feeding on an acutely affected pony, or the inoculation of larval material derived from tabanids that had fed to repletion. It was concluded that tabanid transmission of equine infectious anaemia virus is mechanical only and that infected horses that are free of clinical signs can be a source of virus for insect transmission.

Kerzhner, I. M., D. Myagmarsuren, et al. (1982). "Zoogeographical analysis of horse-flies (Diptera, Tabanidae) of the Mongolian People's Republic." Nasekomye Mongolii Vypusk-8: 408-416.
	A zoogeographical analysis of the tabanid fauna of Mongolia showed that it was represented by 10 faunistic complexes beloging to 4 sub-regional types: Boreal Asiatic, Mediterranean, Afro-European and East Asian. The taiga complex had the largest number of species (13), followed by the steppe and desert complexes (10 each) and the eastern Siberian forest complex (7). The eastern limit of the western forms Hybomitra montana reinigiana (End.), Tabanus leleani Aust. and T. brunneocallosus Olsuf'ev occurred in Mongolia, as did the western limit of the eastern forms Chrysops mlokosiewiczi Big. (vanderwulpi Krober) and T. stackelbergiellus Olsuf'ev.

Khan, F. A. and J. A. Ansari (1990). "Studies on vector screening for Setaria cervi microfilaria." Helminthologica (Bratislava) 27(3): 195-201.
	Various haemophagous arthropods including 9 species of mosquitoes, 3 species of flies and 2 species of ticks were screened in the laboratory to determine their relative potential as vector for the transmission of Stearia cervi. Colonies of vectors were maintained in the laboratory to provide an abundant supply for inducing infection to trace the development of microfilaria. Development of microfilaria up to the infective stage occurred only in mosquitoes Aedes albopictus, A. aegypti (NICD laboratory strain) and A. aegypti (wild strain), though the rate of development varied among them. All the remaining vectors were either refractory or inefficient to support the development of microfilaria. Defence reactions against this worm were also reported in the inefficient mosquito host. Aedes scatophagoides and in the susceptible mosquito host, A. aegypti (wild strain). This work provides a better understanding of possible intermediate hosts of Setaria cervi and at the same time rules out the possibility of many of the arthropods earlier presumed to be vectors of this parasite. (Other species mentioned in this study are Culex fatigans, C. vishnui, C. fuscans, Anopheles subpictus, A. stephensi, Armigeres obturbans, Stomoxys calcitrans, Tabanus brunnipennis, Hippobosca maculata, Haemaphysalis bispinosa and Boophilus microplus.)

Kheir, S. M., H. S. Abdalla, et al. (1995). "A study on tsetse and tabanid flies in south eastern Sudan." Sudan Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry 34: 16-21.
	
Kigaye, M. K. and T. Jiffar (1991). "A survey of ectoparasites of cattle in Harar and Dore Dawa districts, Hararghe administrative region of Ethiopia." Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa 39: 15-24.
	Ectoparasites were collected from cattle at 13 locations in Harar and Dire Dawa districts of Ethiopia, at different times of the year, from 1982 to 1987. 44 species of ectoparasites, mostly ticks, were encountered. 18 tick species were obtained (in descending order of abundance): Amblyomma variegatum, Rhipicephalus pulchellus, A. gemma, R. evertsi evertsi, Boophilus decoloratus, A. lepidum, A. cohaerens, Hyalomma truncatum, H. rufipes [H. marginatum rufipes], R. sanguineus sanguineus, H. dromedarii, R. simus simus, H. impeltatum, H. albiparmatum, H. excavatum [H. anatolicum excavatum], R. pravus, Haemaphysalis aciculifer and R. longus. The predominant tick species in the wet highlands was A. variegatum, while R. pulchellus was predominant in the dry lowlands. 10 species of "stableflies" and related species were encountered (in descending order of abundance): Stomoxys calcitrans, S. nigra [S. niger], S. sitiens, Lyperosia spinigera [Haematobia spinigera], S. varipes, S. bilineata [S. niger bilineatus], S. brunnipes, Lyperosia minuta [H. minuta], L. thirouxi [H. thirouxi] and H. hirtifrons. 7 "housefly" species and a related species were obtained (in descending order of abundance): Musca xanthomelas, M. sorbens, M. crassirostris, M. tempestatum, M. domestica, M. fasciata and Morellia sp. One fleshfly (Sarcophaga ruficornis [Lyopygia ruficornis]), 1 eyegnat (Hippelates flaviceps), 1 lousefly (Hippobosca maculata [H. variegata]), 2 tabanids (Chrysops obliquefasciata and Haematopota patellicorne), 1 mosquito (Anopheles gambiae) and 1 louse (Linognathus vituli) were also encountered. The most widespread biting and bloodsucking fly in Harar and Dire Dawa districts was Musca crassirostris.

Kilic, A. Y. (1999). "Checklist of Tabanidae (Diptera) from Turkey." Turkish Journal of Zoology 23(2): 123-132.
	After a review of the literature on the Tabanidae fauna of Turkey, it was found that 156 species and 12 subspecies have been reported. Twelve of the species are from the subfamily Pangoninae, 19 species and 2 subspecies are from the subfamily Chrysopsinae and 125 species and 10 subspecies are from the subfamily Tabaninae.

Kingston, S. R., J. K. Wangberg, et al. (1986). "Flight behavior and nocturnal resting sites of Tabanus abactor Philip (Diptera: Tabanidae) in the Texas Rolling Plains." Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 59(2): 337-342.
	Flight behaviour and nocturnal resting sites of the females of Tabanus abactor (a pest of horses) were examined in a mark-recapture study the June-September 1982 in the Texas Rolling Plains. Of 2046 tabanids released from valley and hilltop sites, 5% (104) were relocated, and most flew with the prevailing southerly winds. T. abactor preferred sheltered, low-lying valleys and slopes to open, flat hilltops for nocturnal resting sites. The flies were solitary and inactive at night unless disturbed. They rested at various heights, depending upon the vegetation available in the area, and preferred habitats in dense cover.

Kline, D. L. and G. F. Lemire (1995). "Field evaluation of heat as an added attractant to traps baited with carbon dioxide and octenol for Aedes taeniorhynchus." Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 11(4): 454-456.
	Collection size of 3 species of mosquitoes (Aedes taeniorhynchus, Anopheles atropos, and Culex nigripalpus) and a species of biting midge (Culicoides furens) in CDC-type traps baited with carbon dioxide and octenol were significantly increased with the addition of heat. The presence of heat also significantly reduced collection size of the tabanid Diachlorus ferrugatus

Kline, D. L., W. Takken, et al. (1990). "Field studies on the potential of butanone, carbon dioxide, honey extract, 1-octen-3-ol, L-lactic acid and phenols as attractants for mosquitoes." Medical and Veterinary Entomology 4(4): 383-391.
	Various combinations of six candidate attractants--butanone, carbon dioxide (CO2), honey, octenol, lactic acid and mixed phenols--were tested against natural populations of mosquitoes in Everglades National Park, Florida, U.S.A., using unlighted CDC-baited traps. With few exceptions, the attractancy of these candidate compounds to mosquitoes, when used alone, was less than that of CO2 alone. The exceptions were that octenol and honey extract alone attracted larger numbers of Coquillettidia perturbans (Walker). Addition of lactic acid and/or octenol to CO2 increased trap collections of Aedes taeniorhynchus (Wiedemann), Anopheles atropos D. & K., and An. crucians Wiedemann by 1.4-13.8 times. Culex nigripalpus Theobald collections were increased 2.7 times by the addition of lactic acid, while the addition of octenol produced mixed results. Whereas the addition of lactic acid reduced collections of Cx (Melanoconion) spp., the addition of octenol generally increased collections. The opposite happened for Wyeomyia mitchellii (Theobald). For the biting midge, Culicoides furens (poey), octenol (1.6-23.4 x ) and phenol (2.7 x ) alone attracted larger numbers, and lactic acid alone attracted approximately the same numbers as CO2 alone. The combinations octenol + phenol and octenol + 200 ml/min CO2 increased C. furens collections c. 100 times over CO2 alone. The combination of octenol + CO2 increased (1.6 x ) collections of the tabanid Diachlorus ferrugatus (Fabricius). Butanone appeared to decrease the trap collections of all species when combined with CO2 or octenol + CO2.

Kline, D. L., J. R. Wood, et al. (1991). "Interactive effects of 1-octen-3-ol and carbon dioxide on mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) surveillance and control." Journal of Medical Entomology 28(2): 254-258.
	Responses of natural populations of biting Diptera were studied at Everglades National Park, Fla., to three levels (0, 3.0, and 41.1 mg/h) of 1-octen-3-ol (octenol), four levels (0, 20, 200, and 2,000 ml/min) of carbon dioxide (CO2), and their combinations. Catches of mosquitoes (Aedes taeniorhynchus (Wiedemann), Culex [Melanoconion]) spp., Cx. nigripalpus Theobald, and Wyeomyia spp.) and one tabanid (Diachlorus ferrugatus (F.)) were affected significantly by CO2 and octenol. Significantly greater numbers of all taxa were collected as the level of CO2 was increased. The 3.0-mg/h release rate of octenol alone resulted in increased trap catches relative to no bait for all taxa except Cx. (Melanoconion) spp., whereas the 41.1-mg/h release rate alone generally reduced trap catches relative to either no bait or 3.0 mg/h octenol. The effect of CO2 and octenol was additive for Cx. (Melanoconion) spp. and D. ferrugatus and synergistic for Ae. taeniorhynchus. Six octenol-supplemented CO2 treatments produced mixed results for Cx. nigripalpus. Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE. Language: Eng

Knaus, R. M., L. D. Foil, et al. (1993). "Insect blood meal studies using radiocesium 24Na and 22Na." Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 9: 264-268.
	Rabbits were infused with 3.7 GBq (100 mCi) of [24Na]Na ion in a 100-ml sodium carbonate solution. Beta particles were detected using a Tennelec Counting System; background counts were 1.6 +/- 1 counts per minute (cpm). Counts for one nanoliter of blood ranged from 22 to 30 cpm. Blood volumes on the mouthparts of tabanids following a 15-sec interrupted feeding were estimated to be 12.5 nl for Tabanus fuscicostatus, 10.8 nl for T. nigrovittatus and 6.12 nl for Chrysops fuliginosus. Estimates of the quantity of blood adhering to 22-gauge needles and insect pins (size 2) following a percutaneous intramuscular needle-stick were 8.8 +/- 1.0 nl and 5.7 +/- 1.8 nl, respectively. Mosquitoes, Aedes aegypti females, were fed to repletion with a 22Na-artificial diet, and radioactivity was measured using a Packard Autogamma 5650. The estimated average blood meal size was 2.80 +/- 0.94 microliters.

Kniepert, F. W. (1979). "Beschreibung einer modifizierten Manitoba-Falle zum Fang weiblicher Bremsen (Diptera: Tabanidae). Description of a modified Manitoba trap for catching female horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Zoologie 66(1): 93-98.
	A modification of the well-known Manitoba trap is described rendering it more suitable for the capture of female tabanids. A large plastic ball painted black suspended under the top and freely moved by wind currents proved advantageous, and an acrylic paint providing a black shiny surface increased the catch. The addition of a source of carbon dioxide would be even more advantageous.

Kniepert, F. W. (1979). "A efficient method for catching male horse-flies (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Entomologie 88(1): 88-90.
	A new method for trapping male tabanids was devised, based on the use of PVC resembling the surface of water. When this method was tested, 87% of all tabanids trapped were males. Compared with usual procedures, the difference in sex ratio is highly significant.

Kniepert, F. W. (1980). "Blood-feeding and nectar-feeding in adult Tabanidae (Diptera)." Oecologia 46: 125-129.
	In studies in the Vogelburg in the German Federal Republic in 1977, nectar-feeding frequently occurred in male and female tabanids; 53% of 7002 females and 69% of 2436 males reacted positively to cold anthrone. Although there were seasonal fluctuations in rates of blood- and nectar-feeding, the acquisition of sugars may be essential for tabanid survival during the summer. Differences found in blood-feeding rates between the species may indicate different blood-sucking habits.

Kniepert, F. W. (1981). "Preference behaviour of female tabanids (Diptera, Tabanidae) on the host." Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Entomologie 91(5): 486-510.
	A study carried out in the German Federal Republic showed that the rate of attack by females of species of Tabanidae on cattle depended on the position, size and coloration of the host. Each of the 18 tabanid species studied preferred a particular site for feeding; these patterns were analysed statistically and were found to be caused by variations in the length of the hair, thickness and tensile strength of the skin of the animal. The tabanids preferred sites in which these characters correlated with the absolute and relative length of their proboscis. This phenomenon illustrates the competitive exclusion principle.

Knox, P. C. and K. L. Hays (1972). "Attraction of Tabanus spp. (Diptera: Tabanidae) to traps baited with carbon dioxide and other chemicals." Environmental Entomology 1: 323-326.
	
Knudsen, A. B. and D. M. Rees (1970). "Collecting adult tabanids using a "Stickem" trap baited with carbon dioxide." Proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference of the California Mosquito Control Association, January 27-29, 1969: pages 129-132.
	1. During this study a C02 baited "Stickem" trap collected
fifty-three times the number of flies taken in any nonbaited
"Stickem" trap. This was determined on an average
day light hourly basis of trap operation.
2. No significant differences were apparent in the number
of tabanids collected in the nonbaited traps operated in
greasewood and saltgrass vegetation.
3. On the C02 baited trap the shaded surfaces were more
attractive to the flies than the nonshaded surfaces.
4. As a result of this study it can be assumed that "Stickem"
traps baited with COa have a potential use for the control
of tabanids. Larger traps, in greater numbers,in selected
areas, may substantially reduce tabanid populations. The
cost of larger scale operation of such traps for control purposes
may prohibit their use.

Koller, W. W., A. T. M. Barros, et al. (2003). Tabanids of an area infected by Trypanosoma vivax in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil. International Symposium for Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics X, Viña del Mar, Chile.
	This study aimed to identify the tabanid species as well as their relative abundance and seasonality in the sub region of Miranda, a transition area from the Pantanal to the highland savanna (Cerrado). Tabanids were most abundant during the rainy seasons and population peaks were observed in October 2001, February/March and December 2002, generally associated with the beginning of the rainy season (October 2001 and December 2002) and temperature increasing. Trypanosoma vivax (Trypanosomatidae) is a pathogenic trypanosome found in wild and domestic herbivores, mainly in cattle (Bos taurus, Bos indicus, and crossbreeds), in Africa and South America. Although in the African continent T. vivax is cyclically transmitted by tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossynidae), it is only mechanically transmitted by tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) in South America. Indeed, the role of tabanids as mechanical vectors of T. vivax should be considered important also in Africa, since transmission by an African species has been demonstrated (Desquesnes & Dia, 2003). The epidemiology of cattle trypanosomiasis in the Pantanal, which is widely spread in the region (Silva et al., 1996), is considered to be tabanid dependent. The Pantanal is composed by several sub regions and except for the studies conducted at the Nhecolândia sub region (Barros & Foil, 1999; Barros, 2001); tabanids from other areas are poorly known or virtually unknown. This study aimed to identify the tabanid species as well as their relative abundance and seasonality in the sub region of Miranda, a transition area from the Pantanal to the highland savanna (Cerrado).

Konai, M., R. F. Whitcomb, et al. (1997). "Spiroplasma litorale sp. nov., from tabanid flies (Tabanidae: Diptera) in the southeastern United States." International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 47(2): 359-362.
	Spiroplasma strain TN-1T (T = type strain), a strain serologically distinct from other spiroplasma species, groups and subgroups, was isolated from the gut of a horsefly (Tabanus nigrovittatus) from a barrier island off the coast of North Carolina, USA. Related strains were isolated from T. atratus, T. americanus, T. gladiator, T. lineola, T. sulcifrons and T. zythicolor, from coastal Georgia. Cells of strain TN-1T in culture were helical and motile with an average of 5-10 helical turns per cell. Electron microscopy determined that the cells of strain TN-1T were surrounded by a single cytoplasmic membrane, and there was no evidence of a cell wall. The spiroplasma grew well in M1D and SP-4 liquid media. Serum fraction (1%) medium and conventional horse serum medium also supported growth of strain TN-1T. Fried-egg colonies were not produced; instead, the strain produced small diffuse colonies that were surrounded by satellite growth. The optimum temperature for growth was 32°C, but multiplication was observed at temperatures from 10 to 41°C. The doubling time at the optimum temperature (32°C) was 1.6 h. No growth was observed at 5 or 43°C. Spiroplasma strain TN-1T passed through 220-nm filter pores but failed to pass through 100-nm filter pores. Strain TN-1T catabolized glucose but hydrolysed neither arginine nor urea. The guanine-plus-cytosine content of the DNA was about 25±1 mol%, and the genome size was 1370 kbp. Based on results from this study and previously published data, strain TN-1T ( = ATCC 43211) (group XVIII) is designated the type strain of a new spiroplasma species, S. litorale sp. nov.

Konstantinov, S. A. (1993). "Quantitative assessment of the phases of tabanid attacks on cows in natural conditions." Parazitoologicheskii Sbornik Leningrad 37: 73-100.
	
Kozlov, M. V., N. K. Brodskaya, et al. (2006). "Abundance and diversity of human-biting flies (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae, Culicidae, Tabanidae, Simuliidae) around a nickel-copper smelter at Monchegorks, northwestern Russia." Journal of Vector Ecology 30(2): 263-271.
	
Krčmar, S. (2005). "Seasonal abundance of horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) from two locations in eastern Croatia." Journal of Vector Ecology 30(2): 316-321.
	
Krčmar, S. (2007). "Responses of Tabanidae (Diptera) to canopy traps baited with 4-methylphenol, 3-isopropylphenol, and naphthalene." Journal of Vector Ecology 32(2): 188-192.
	The attraction of female tabanids to unbaited and single-baited canopy traps using 4-methylphenol, 3-isopropylphenol, and naphthalene was studied in three forest localities in eastern Croatia. Tabanids were collected in a significantly higher number in traps baited with these chemicals compared to unbaited control traps. The number of females of Tabanus bromius, Tabanus sudeticus, Tabanus tergestinus, Hybomitra ciureai, Haematopota pluvialis, and Tabanus maculicornis collected from 4-methylphenol baited canopy traps and traps baited with other attractants differed significantly. A total of 89.0% of tabanids collected belonged to these six species. The response of the other species to used chemicals was not analyzed because of small sample sizes. Moreover, the results with 3-isopropylphenol and naphthalene are v very similar and not significant for some tabanids.Tabanus bromius was the most abundant species with 48.4% in the sample collected by canopy traps. Finally, the 4-methylphenol baited canopy traps collected 16 times more tabanids than unbaited traps, while 3-isopropylphenol and naphthalene baited traps collected 3.5 and 2 times as many tabanids, respectively, than unbaited traps. Also, 4-methylphenol appeared to be a v very effective attractant for Lucilia caesar (Calliphoridae), Sarcophaga carnaria (Sarcophagidae), and Musca domestica (Muscidae).

Krcmar, S. and C. Durbesic (2000). "Ecological niches of horse flies and the selectivity of Malaise traps." Periodicum Biologorum 102: 269-272.
	
Krčmar, S., L. J. Hribar, et al. (2005). "Response of Tabanidae (Diptera) to natural and synthetic olfactory attractants." Journal of Vector Ecology 30: 133-136.
	The attraction of female tabanids to Malaise traps and canopy traps baited with aged horse urine, 1-octen-3-ol,
or a combination of aged horse urine and acetone was studied in the Kopa…ki rit Nature Park in Eastern Croatia. Malaise traps
captured very few tabanids relative to canopy traps. The number of females of Tabanus tergestinus and Haematopota pluvialis
collected from 1-octen-3-ol baited canopy traps differed significantly from traps baited with aged horse urine. However, the
number of females of Tabanus bromius, Atylotus loewianus, and Tabanus maculicornis collected from canopy traps baited
with 1-octen-3-ol and aged horse urine did not differ significantly. Canopy traps baited with aged horse urine collected
significantly more Tabanus sudeticus than did traps baited with 1-octen-3-ol. Canopy traps baited with 1-octen–3-ol collected
eight times more tabanids than unbaited traps, whereas canopy traps baited with aged horse urine and a combination of aged
horse urine and acetone collected seven and four times as many tabanids, respectively, as did unbaited traps. It appears that
1-octen –3-ol and aged horse urine are very effective attractants for tabanids in this part of Europe. Tabanus bromius was the
most abundant species with 53.14% in the sample collected by canopy traps.

Krčmar, S. and M. Leclercq (1997). "Horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) on the lower part of the Neretva River in southern Croatia." Bulletin and Annales de la Societe Royale Belge d'Entomologie 133(2): 267-274.
	Faunistical and ecological research work have been carried out on 6 localities in areas around the Neretva river during 1995 and 1996. All together 739 horse flies were collected. The identification and review literature established 33 species of horse flies classified in eight genera: Chrysops, Atylotus, Therioplectes, Hybomitra, Tabanus, Haematopota, Dasyrhamphis and Philipomyia. This faunistic research of horse flies resulted in the recording of the Hybomitra expollicata and Tabanus regularis, new species in the fauna of Croatia. Three species, Hybomitra ciureai, Hybomitra muehlfeldi and Hybomitra acuminata, make up 54.52% of the horse fly fauna of the investigated area.

Krčmar, S., A. Mikuska, et al. (2006). "Response of Tabanidae (Diptera) to different natural attractants." Journal of Vector Ecology 31(2): 262-265.
	The response of female tabanids to natural attractants was studied in the Monjoroš Forest along the Nature
Park Kopački rit in eastern Croatia. Tabanids were caught in canopy traps baited with either aged cow, horse, sheep,
or pig urine and also in unbaited traps. Tabanids were collected in a significantly higher numbers in traps baited with
natural attractants compared to unbaited traps. The number of females of Tabanus bromius, Tabanus maculicornis, Tabanus
tergestinus, and Hybomitra bimaculata collected from canopy traps baited with cow urine and traps baited with other
natural attractants differed significantly. Females of Haematopota pluvialis were also collected more frequently in canopy
traps baited with aged cow urine than in those with aged horse urine, but this difference was not significant. However, the
number of females of Haematopota pluvialis collected from canopy traps baited with other natural attractants (sheep and
pig urine) differed significantly when compared with aged cow urine baited traps. Canopy traps baited with aged cow urine
collected significantly more Tabanus sudeticus than did traps baited with aged pig urine. Finally, the aged cow urine baited
canopy traps collected 51 times more tabanids than unbaited traps, while aged horse, aged sheep, and aged pig urine baited
traps collected 36, 30, and 22 times as many tabanids, respectively, than unbaited traps.

Krinsky, W. L. (1975). "Cystic anomaly in the intestine of adult Tabanidae." Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 26(1): 137-138; 132 fig.; 132 ref.
	Examination of single adult females of Hybomitra trispilus sodalis (Will.) (H. sodalis) and Tabanus similis Macq. and two males of Chrysops univittatus Macq. collected in central New York State in 1972-73 revealed the presence of identical cysts in the hind-gut. The fluid within the cysts, which were thought to have formed during metamorphosis, was found to contain hundreds of unidentified crystalline structures.

Krinsky, W. L. (1976). "Animal disease agents transmitted by horse flies and deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 13: 225-275.
	Published reports of tabanid transmission of pathogenic agents of animals (including man) are reviewed. Experimental evidence is discussed for tabanid transmission of viruses, bacteria, Protozoa and helminths. The results of laboratory and field tests indicate that tabanids are essential to the biological transmission of the Protozoa Haemoproteus metchnikovi and Trypanosoma theileri and of the helminths Loa loa, Dirofilaria roemeri and Elaeophora schneideri, and that tabanids are mechanical vectors of the viruses of equine infections anaemia, vesicular stomatitis, hog cholera and rinderpest, the bacteria Anaplasma marginale, Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium chauvoei, Pasteurella multocida, P. tularensis (Francisella tularensis), Brucella spp., Listeria monocytogenes and Erysipelothrix rhusiopathae, the Protozoa Besnoitia besnoiti, T. evansi, T. equiperdum, T. congolense, T. brucei brucei and T. rhodesiense. The extent of the importance of tabanids in the natural mechanical transmission of most of these agents is not known. Indirect modes of transmission, involving secondary blood-feeding insects at the sites of tabanid bites or contamination by means of agents adhering to external tabanid structures are briefly discussed.

Krinsky, W. L. and L. L. Pechuman (1975). "Trypanosomes in horse flies and deer flies in central New York state." Journal of Parasitology 61: 12-16.
	Tabanids were collected during 2 consecutive summers from 3 counties in New York using a canopy trap and insect net. Twenty-seven per cent of all fly specimens (N equals 641) representing 69% of the species collected (N equals 36) were infected with flagellates. Tabanid intestines harbored amastigote, choanomastigote, and epimastigote forms. Epimastigotes were frequently found, and trypomastigotes and choanomastigotes rarely found in cultures of tabanid intestinal flagellates. Epimastigote and trypomastigote forms closely resembled Trypanosoma theileri-like trypanosomes reported from ruminants.

Kriska, G., B. Bernáth, et al. (2009). "Degrees of polarization of reflected light eliciting polarotaxis in dragonflies (Odonata), mayflies (Ephemeroptera) and tabanid flies (Tabanidae)." Journal of Insect Physiology 55: 1167-1173.
	With few exceptions insects whose larvae develop in freshwater possess positive polarotaxis, i.e., are attracted to sources of horizontally polarized light, because they detect water by means of the horizontal polarization of light reflected from the water surface. These insects can be deceived by artificial surfaces (e.g. oil lakes, asphalt roads, black plastic sheets, dark-coloured cars, black gravestones, dark glass surfaces, solar panels) reflecting highly and horizontally polarized light. Apart from the surface characteristics, the extent of such a ‘polarized light pollution’ depends on the illumination conditions, direction of view, and the threshold p* of polarization sensitivity of a given aquatic insect species. p* means the minimum degree of linear polarization p of reflected light that can elicit positive polarotaxis from a given insect species. Earlier there were no quantitative data on p* in aquatic insects. The aim of this work is to provide such data. Using imaging polarimetry in the red, green and blue parts of the spectrum, in multiple-choice field experiments we measured the threshold p* of ventral polarization sensitivity in mayflies, dragonflies and tabanid flies, the positive polarotaxis of which has been shown earlier. In the blue (450 nm) spectral range, for example, we obtained the following thresholds: dragonflies: Enallagma cyathigerum (0% < p* ≤ 17%), Ischnura elegans (17% ≤ p* ≤ 24%). Mayflies: Baetis rhodani (32% ≤ p* ≤ 55%), Ephemera danica, Epeorus silvicola, Rhithrogena semicolorata (55% ≤ p* ≤ 92%). Tabanids: Tabanus bovinus, Tabanus tergestinus (32% ≤ p* ≤ 55%), Tabanus maculicornis (55% ≤ p* ≤ 92%).

Kriska, G., J. Majer, et al. (2008). "Polarotaxis in tabanid flies and its practical significance." Acta Biologica Debrecina Oecologia Hungarica 18: 101-108.
	We present here experimental evidence for the positive polarotaxis of both males and females in numerous tabanid fly species. Our results show that in these tabanids the recognition of rendezvous and oviposition sites near water bodies happens indirectly by means of the detection of horizontally polarized water-reflected light. Tabanid females usually lay their eggs on marsh-plants next to water, or mud, and after egg hatching the larvae drop down directly into water, or onto wet soil. Polarotaxis has been described earlier only in connection with the direct detection of water. Tabanids should also find water, because they need water for drinking, furthermore the surrounding of waters can be an ideal rendezvous and oviposition site for tabanids. A further particularity of our findings is that in the order Diptera the investigated tabanids are the first known species possessing ventral polarization vision. The discovery of polarotaxis in tabanids makes it possible to develop new optically luring traps being more efficient than the existing traps based on the attraction of tabanids by the brightness and/or colour of reflected light. The improvement of tabanid traps is of particular importance in regions, especially in the tropics, where tabanids transmit dangerous diseases, because these insects cannot be exterminated by traditional methods using toxic sprays, for example.

Kristensen, P. K. and C. Sommer (2000). "Ammonia and 1-octen-3-ol as attractants for Haematopota pluvialis, Hybomitra expollicata (Diptera: Tabanidae), and Morellia spp. (Diptera: Muscidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 37: 984-985.
	1-Octen-3-ol with and without ammonia were evaluated as attractants in canopy traps for Haematopota pluvialis L., Hybomitra expollicata Pand., and Morellia spp. Baited traps collected significantly more Tabanidae and female Morellia spp. than unbaited traps. 1-Octen-3-ol or 1-octen-3-ol with ammonia, increased catch by 4.2- and 4.3-fold for H. pluvialis, 5.9- and 8.6-fold for H. expollicata, and 1.2- and 1.6-fold for female Morellia spp., respectively.

Krivosheina, N. P. and E. I. Yasakova (1973). "Morphology of the larvae of Atylotus pulchellus karybenthinus Szil. (Diptera, Tabanidae)." Parazitologiya 7(4): 323-326.
	Larvae of Atylotus pulchellus karybenthinus (Szil.) were collected from the environs of Ashkhaba in Turkmenia (Soviet Union) in June 1971. They were found in a large well-warmed locality containing pools overgrown with aquatic vegetation near a seepage of subsoil water. The larvae are described, and a key to those of the three known species of Atylotus in the area is given.

Kröber, O. (1925). Tabanidae, Linder E. Die fliegen der palaearktischen region 19. Stuttgart, E. Schweizer, bart. (Erwin Nagele) G.M.B.H.
	
Kröber, O. (1927). "Die Chrysopsarten Afrikas." Zoologische Jahrbuecher Abteilung fuer Systematik 43: 41-160.
	
Labhart, T. and E. P. Meyer (1999). "Detectors for polarized skylight in insects: a survey of ommatidial specializations in the dorsal rim area of the compound eye." Microscopy Research and Technique 47(6): 368-379.
	Apart from the sun, the polarization pattern of the sky offers insects a reference for visual compass orientation. Using behavioral experiments, it has been shown in a few insect species (field crickets, honey bees, desert ants, and house flies) that the detection of the oscillation plane of polarized skylight is mediated exclusively by a group of specialized ommatidia situated at the dorsal rim of the compound eye (dorsal rim area). The dorsal rim ommatidia of these species share a number physiological properties that make them especially suitable for polarization vision: each ommatidium contains two sets of homochromatic, strongly polarization-sensitive photoreceptors with orthogonally-arranged analyzer orientations. The physiological specialization of the dorsal rim area goes along with characteristic changes in ommatidial structure, providing actual anatomical hallmarks of polarized skylight detection, that are readily detectable in histological sections of compound eyes. The presence of anatomically specialized dorsal rim ommatidia in many other insect species belonging to a wide range of different orders indicates that polarized skylight detection is a common visual function in insects. However, fine-structural disparities in the design of dorsal rim ommatidia of different insect groups indicate that polarization vision arose polyphyletically in the insects.

Lago, P. K. and S. Testa, III (1990). "Notes on the biting flies (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae, Culicidae, Tabanidae) of Point Clear Island and surrounding marshlands, Hancock County, Mississippi." Journal of the Mississippi Academy of Sciences 35: 59-63.
	A survey of the biting flies of Point Clear Island surrounding tidal marshes revealed the presence of 26 species within the families Ceratopogonidae, Culicidae and Tabanidae. Of the 6 species of biting midges found, Culicoides furens, C. mississippiensis and Atrichopogon fusculus were the most abundant. Aedes sollicitans and A. taeniorhynchus were the only mosquitoes of the 11 species collected that were abundant. Chrysops atlanticus was the most abundant deerfly, and Tabanus acutus, T. lineola hinellus and T. nigrovittatus were common horseflies in the area. Five additional species of tabanids were encountered.

Lake, D. J. and J. F. Burger (1980). "Ovarian development in adult Chrysops (Diptera: Tabanidae) in northern New England, with emphasis on Chrysops ater and C. mitis." Journal of Medical Entomology 17: 502-505.
	Ovarian development in females of 10 species of Chrysops from northern New England was studied to determine whether the species developed eggs autogenously or anautogenously in the first gonotrophic cycle. The most abundant species collected were C. carbonarius Wlk. (ater Macq.) and C. mitis O. S. Of 41 females of the first species examined, 83% had follicles at stage 5 seven days after adult emergence, the rest having follicles at stages 3 and 4; the 50 females of C. mitis, however, all had primary follicles only in the first 2 stages seven days after emergence. All field-collected females of both species were parous, but an earlier flight of nullipars may have been missed. The results indicated that C. carbonarius is autogenous and C. mitis anautogenous, but since they do not agree with observations on these species in other parts of their geographical range, it is suggested that autogeny in species of Chrysops may be facultative, occurring in some areas but not in others according to local conditions and especially the quantities of nutrients accumulated and stored by the insects during the larval stage.

Lall, S. B. (1970). "Carbohydrate meals of haematophagous tabanids (Diptera)." Journal of Medical Entomology 7: 127-130.
	
Lane, R. S. (1975). "Immatures of some Tabanidae (Diptera) from Mendocino County, Calif." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 68(5): 803-819.
	Approximately 2100 larvae and pupae of Tabanids of 15 species in 4 genera were collected in Mendocino County, California, from 1971-1974. Thirteen of the 15 species collected were reared to the adult stage. Larvae and pupae of 10 species (7 of Chrysops, 2 of Silvius and 1 of Tabanus) are described for the first time, and larvae and pupae of T. monoensis Hine are redescribed. The larvae and pupae of T. punctifer O.-S. and T. similis Macq., which were also reared, are discussed. Although larvae and pupae of C. coquilletti Hine and C. wileyae Philip were inseparable and reared females were difficult to distinguish, several morphological characters were found that differentiated males of these species.

Lane, R. S. (1976). "Density and diversity of immature Tabanidae (Diptera) in relation to habitat type in Mendocino County, California." Journal of Medical Entomology 12(6): 683-691.
	Potential habitats of immature tabanids in south-eastern Mendocino County, California, were investigated from March to July in 1971-1973. Funnel extraction, handsorting and sieve methods were used to examine 3421 soil samples 0.093 m2 in area X 8-10 cm deep from 5 major semi-aquatic habitats (in seepage areas and above the margins of creeks, permanent ponds, temporary ponds and the Russian River) and terrestrial habitats (oak woodland leaf litter and soil). These habitats are described and compared with respect to the density and diversity of their tabanid inhabitants. Semi-aquatic sampling yielded 1437 larval and pupal tabanids of 15 species in 4 genera (7 species of Chrysops, 2 of Hybomitra, 2 of Silvius and 4 of Tabanus). Seepage areas ranked first as to density and diversity, yielding an average of 15.3 immatures of 7 species/m2. Temporary pond margins yielded 14.4 immatures/m2, although only 25% of those sampled were productive. The borders of creeks produced the lowest density (2.8 immatures/m2) and those of temporary ponds the lowest diversity (4 species). Woodland leaf litter and soil samples yielded no immature tabanids, even though they formed over 40% of all samples. Other potential habitats sampled in which few or no immature tabanids were found included decaying logs, stock water troughs and tree holes.Four of the 7 species of Chrysops reared were each restricted to 1 habitat type. Immature Chrysops were most abundant in habitats containing moderate to large amounts of decaying organic matter. The larvae of two species of Hybomitra were associated with organic substrata, principally mosses. Immatures of both species of Silvius were collected from sand and silt above the margins of lotic habitats. Species of Tabanus were adapted to a variety of habitats, as larvae of 3 of the 4 species collected inhabited 2 or more habitat types. T. punctifer O.-S. occurred in every kind of natural semiaquatic habitat sampled except tree holes.

Lane, R. S. (1979). "Larvae and pupae of two Hybomitra species (Diptera: Tabanidae) from northern California." Journal of Medical Entomology 16(2): 142-149.
	The larvae and pupae of Hybomitra californica (Marten) and H. sonomensis (O.-S.) from northern California are described for the first time. A detailed morphological comparison of the larvae and pupae of H. sonomensis with those of H. phaenops (O.-S.) (an important pest of livestock from Arizona that is closely related to it) corroborates recent evidence from the morphology of the adults that the 2 forms are distinct species.

Lane, R. S. and J. R. Anderson (1982). "The reproductive life history and blood meal sources of Chrysops hirsuticallus (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 19: 157-163.
	The reproductive life-history and sources of blood-meals of Chrysops hirsuticallus Philip from Mendocino County, California, were determined in 1971-74. Nulliparous females predominated in late April and most of May, whereas uniparous and biparous ones constituted the greater part of the collections made in late May and June; triparous females were recorded for the 1st time for this species in the field. Egg retention increased with advancing gonotrophic age. Vegetation sweeps yielded comparable proportions of females with their terminal ovarian follicles in development stages up to II (55%) and in stages III-V (45%). Over 80% of those caught by hand while attacking man were in stage II, and only 2% in stages III-V. Females reared from pupae and surviving for at least 8 days without a blood-meal entered ovarian diapause on the 4th day, indicating that C. hirsuticallus was anautogenous in the study area. The spermathecae of 17 host-seeking nulliparous females that were dissected contained spermatozoa, which indicated that mating preceded blood-feeding. Serological analysis of 19 engorged females showed that cattle and Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) were frequent hosts, and that limited feeding also took place on smaller mammals (Lepus californicus, Didelphis virginiana and Procyon lotor).

Lane, R. S. and J. R. Anderson (1983). "Multiple autogeny and burrow oviposition by a marine horse fly (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 20(2): 212-213.
	Apatolestes actites Philip & Steffan, of which the immature stages are found on sandy beaches on the coast of California, were found to be autogenous, to deposit 2 egg-batches on occasion and to have reduced mouthparts. This is the 1st record of multiple autogeny in a wild-caught member of a predominantly blood-sucking brachycerous family; females of most other known autogenous Diptera either require a blood-meal to complete their 2nd gonotrophic cycle or can oviposit only once. Gravid females of A. actites were found to oviposit in underground burrows of amphipods or isopods. All other tabanids of which the oviposition habits were studied oviposited on objects above the soil surface. Multiple autogeny and subterranean oviposition, besides other physiological and behavioural adaptations, permitted this tabanid to colonise a generally inhospitable environment.

Lane, R. S. and J. R. Anderson (1985). "Biology of autogenous horse flies native to coastal California: Brennania hera (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Myia 3: 433-461.
	Brennania hera, a psammophilous tabanid native to California coastal sand dunes, was studied in Marin County in 1975-82. Immatures were found at depths of 8-40 cm and at a mean density of 3.88/m2 in sandy-silty soils colonized by such plants as Mesembryanthemum chilense, Grindelia stricta and Lupinus arboreus. Egg masses averaged 175.2±58.5 eggs; the incubation period in the laboratory was 9 days. Hovering by males appeared to be governed by temperature, and was functionally related to mating. The intermittent nature of male hovering was an effective anti-predator behaviour. Receptive females flew through the hovering zone in a low, direct, rapid flight. When caught by a male, the pair immediately landed, and coupling averaged 2 min 10 sec. Development of full clutches of mature eggs without a blood meal demonstrated that the population studied was autogenous during the 1st gonotrophic cycle.

Lane, R. S., J. R. Anderson, et al. (1983). "Biology of autogenous horse flies native to coastal California: Apatolestes actites (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 76(4): 559-571.
	The immature stages of Apatolestes actites Philip & Steffan at a sandy ocean beach in California inhabited the supralittoral zone to depths of 8-36 cm in relatively saline soil that was acidic for at least 6 months a year. Adults flew from early June to mid-July. They emerged between 0751 and 1258 h, dispersed to the littoral and lower supralittoral zones, where they basked for up to 3 h, and then disappeared. Only gravid females returned to the beach area, where parous flies apparently remained after ovipositing. The life-span of confined newly emerged adults averaged 5.0 days for males and 9.3 days for females. Females developed their 1st batch of eggs autogenously in 6 days at 25°C and 67% RH; 4 wild-caught flies had also produced or were in the course of developing a 2nd batch of eggs autogenously. Fecundity averaged 322 eggs in the 1st gonotrophic cycle and 43 in the 2nd. Eggs hatched in 6-8 days, and the mean viability of 3 masses was 69%. Females laid their eggs in amphipod or isopod burrows, and rarely in driftwood. The mandibular and maxillary stylets of females were much reduced and presumably unable to pierce the skin of vertebrates. The barn swallow (Hirundo rustica) and the song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) preyed on the adult flies.

Lane, R. S. and G. O. Poinar, Jr. (1985). "Biology and description of the larval horse fly host (Diptera: Tabanidae) of a Pheromermis sp. (Nematoda: Mermithidae)." Myia 3: 463-474.
	Nearly 40% of Hybomitra sp. larvae from an intermittent spring seepage in Mendocino County, California, USA, were parasitized by Pheromermis sp. near myopis. Late instars of the tabanid larvae are described.

Lang, J. T., C. E. Schreck, et al. (1981). "Permethrin for biting-fly (Diptera: Muscidae; Tabanidae) control on horses in Central Luzon, Philippines." Journal of Medical Entomology 18: 522-529.
	
Lankester, M. W. and W. M. Samuel (In File
1998). Pests, parasites and diseases. Ecology and management of the North American moose, Washington, D.C., Smithsonian Institution Press.
	
LaSalle, M. W. and T. D. Bishop (1987). "Seasonal abundance of aquatic Diptera in two oligohaline tidal marshes in Mississippi." Estuaries 10(4): 303-315.
	Nineteen species of Diptera (16 in each zone) from 7 families were found in monthly collections (June 1979 through May 1980) in 2 Mississippi marsh plant zones dominated by Juncus roemerianus and Spartina cynosuroides, respectively. The Juncus zone was dominated by a species of the Palpomyia-Bezzia complex, 2 species of Bezzia (Ceratopogonidae), Paratendipes sp., Limnophyes, sp. (Chironomidae) and Thinophilus frontalis (Dolichopodidae). Palpomyia-Bezzia sp., Culicoides hollensis, Ormosia sp. (Tipulidae) and Pelastoneurus abbreviatus (Dolichopodidae) dominated the Spartina zone. Among other species found in small numbers were the tabanids Chrysops atlanticus and Tabanus nigrovittatus, the ephydrid Notiphila bispinosa and an unidentified anthomyiid. Total insect density and species richness were lowest in June and July in both zones, corresponding to a pulse of adult emergence. Overall, total density was significantly higher in the Spartina zone with mean values of 165 and 245 insects/m2 for the Juncus and Spartina zones, respectively. In addition to total density, differences in abundance were apparent for a number of species between marsh zones. Patterns could be attributed to species-specific habitat preference, predation by aquatic predators and/or by interactions of the infauna themselves.

Latif, A. A., M. A. Bakheit, et al. (2004). "High infection rates of the tick Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum with Trypanosoma theileri." Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 71: 251-256.
	
Lawrence, R. S., W. E. Bickley, et al. (1976). "The seasonal distribution of biting flies in St. Mary's County, Maryland in 1975 (Diptera: Tabanidae, Muscidae)." Publication No. 904, Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station, Department of Entomology: 18 pp.
	In 1974, an outbreak of equine infectious anaemia (swamp fever) occurred in St. Mary's County, Maryland. From a survey in 1975 at 3 of the places affected, 47 species of tabanids and 2 muscids are listed that were collected in box and canopy traps and by net sweeps overhead or near horses. Eight species of which more than 100 examples were taken were considered to be important in one or more areas. Tabanus quinquevittatus Wied. and T. sulcifrons Macq. were abundant in all 3 areas and were frequently collected from horses. Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) was an abundant pest of horses. Attacks on horses were most severe in August. The seasonal and geographical distribution of the more important species are discussed in relation to biological and ecological factors. The peaks of abundance of 6 of the most abundant species in 1975 coincided with the onset of equine infectious anaemia in 1974, and it is suggested that biting flies may have played a part in the transmission of the disease.

Lawson, F. A. (1983). "SEM studies of insect mouthparts 1. The stylets of deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 56(2): 253-260.
	The stylets of 2 species of Chrysops, including C. fulvaster O.-S., were examined under the scanning-electron microscope in the laboratory in Wyoming and are described in detail and illustrated. The mouthparts of the female indicated that it fed by piercing and cutting, while those of the male (particularly the absence of mandibles) indicated that it fed by sponging and sucking.

Leak, S. G. A., W. Mulatu, et al. (1995). "A trial of a cypermethrin 'pour-on' insecticide to control Glossina pallidipes, G. fuscipes fuscipes and G. morsitans submorsitans (Diptera: Glossinidae) in south-west Ethiopia." Bulletin of Entomological Research 85: 241-251.
	Tsetse populations and trypanosome prevalence in cattle were monitored from 1986 to 1993 in the Ghibe valley, south-west Ethiopia. From January 1991 to December 1993 between 2000 and 4000 cattle were treated at monthly intervals with cypermethrin. An approximate dosage of 1 ml per 10 kg bodyweight was used to control Glossina spp. Treatments were given as 'pour-on' applications along the backlines of animals, using automatic drench-gun applicators. This resulted in a decline of 93% in the apparent density of G. pallidipes. A reduction of 83% in the apparent density of G. morsitans submorsitans was also observed. This reduction was associated with a reduction in trypanosome prevalence in cattle of over 74% in 1993, despite a high level of resistance to all available trypanocidal drugs. The numbers of Stomoxys spp. and Tabanidae were also significantly reduced (P<0.01).

Leclercq, M. (1960). "Révision systématique et biogéographique des Tabanidae (Diptera) paléarctiques. I. Pangoniinae et Chrysopsinae." Mémoires Insitut royal des Sciences naturelles de Belgique (2) 63: 1-77.
	
Leclercq, M. (1966). "Révision systématique et biogéographique des Tabanidae (Diptera) paléarctiques. II. Tabaninae." Mémoires Insitut royal des Sciences naturelles de Belgique (2) 80: 1-237.
	
Leclercq, M. (1967). Tabanidae (Diptera) des Pays-Bas. Zoologische bijdragen no. 9. Leiden, E.J. Brill.
	
Leclercq, M. (1986). "Diptera: Fam. Tabanidae of Saudi Arabia (Part 2)." Fauna of Saudi Arabia 8: 340-342.
	Five species of tabanid are recorded as new to the fauna of Saudi Arabia, namely Tabanus camelarius, T. cordiger, T. leucostomus, T. mordax and T. sufis. A 6th, Haematopota coronata, is recorded from new localities in the Asir mountains.

Leclercq, M., C. Gaspar, et al. (1974). Atlas provisoire des insectes de France. Diptera, Tabanidae. Gembloux, Belgique : Versailles, France, Faculte des sciences agronomiques de l'Etat, Zoologie generale et faunistique; Office pour l'information entomologique.
	
Leclercq, M. and J. M. Maldes (1987). "List of the Tabanidae of Algeria and Morocco and description of a new species (Diptera, Brachycera)." Nouvelle Revue d'Entomologie 4(1): 79-84.
	A checklist of the Tabanidae of Algeria and Morocco is given, together with new collecting records. A total of 66 species and subspecies are now known from Morocco and 49 from Algeria. Pangonius florae sp. n. is described from Algeria.

Leclercq, M. and J. M. Maldes (1988). "Description of Haematopota (Chrysopota) linaresae n. sp. from Ivory Coast and a key to the Haematopota (Chrysopota) of the denshamii group of the Afrotropical region (Dipt. Tabanidae)." Bulletin de la Société Entomologique de France 93(9-10): 309-316.
	Haematopota linaresae sp. nov. is described from 16 female (including the holotype) and 3 male specimens caught at Lamto, Ivory Coast, in August 1979. It is most similar to H. copemanii and H. newtoni but differs in the appearance of antennae, wings and frontal band. A key to the species of the denshamii group of Haematopota from the Afrotropical region is given.

Leclercq, M., J. M. Maldes, et al. (1986). "Pangonius micans Meigen (Diptera Tabanidae), a species autogenous then anautogenous." Cahiers des Naturalistes, Bulletin des Naturalistes Parisiens 42(3): 57-63.
	P. micans is generally considered an anthophilic species. The flowers with which it is associated are listed and its range (W. Palaearctic) is given. A second case of haematophagy on man is reported from Herault, France, and observations of haematophagy on horses in Herault and Gard are reported. The anthophilic and autogenous nature of the Pangoniini and the possible causes of their occasional haematophagy and anautogeny are discussed.

Leclercq, M. and N. G. Olsuf'ev (1975). "Catalogue of the Palaearctic Tabanidae (Diptera)." Bulletin and Annales de la Societe Royale Belge d'Entomologie 111: 25-36.
	This catalogue of Palaearctic Tabanids includes 174 species of Tabanus, 88 of Hybomitra, 56 of Haematopota, 44 of Chrysops and 30 of Pangonius.

Leclercq, M. and N. G. Olsuf'ev (1981). "New catalogue of Palaearctic Tabanidae (Diptera)." Notes Fauniques de Gembloux 6: 1-51.
	This is a revised and expanded version of a previous catalogue of Palaearctic tabanids [see RAE/B 64, 3434] including some previously undescribed species and some corrected or confirmed synonymies, and comprises 538 species, of which 518 are strictly Palaearctic, 8 are Holarctic, 9 Ethiopian and 3 Oriental. Of the 20 genera involved, Pangonius s.l. contains 30 species, Chrysops 52 species, Hybomitra s.l. 98, Tabanus 207 and Haematopota 63 species. An alphabetical list of all species mentioned, with a code number for each, is appended as an index.

Leclercq, M., W. Wittmer, et al. (1982). "Insects of Saudi Arabia. Diptera: Fam. Tabanidae." Fauna of Saudi Arabia 4: 447-449.
	Nine species of tabanids are listed and discussed from Saudi Arabia, including 4 that are recorded there for the 1st time.

Leclerq, M. (1952). "Introduction a l'étude des tabanides et revision des espèces de Belgique." Mémoires d'Institut Royal des Science Naturelles de Belgiques 123: 1-80.
	
Legner, E. F. (1995). "Biological control of Diptera of medical and veterinary importance." Journal of Vector Ecology 20(1): 59-120.
	A review of biological control efforts against Diptera of medical and veterinary importance includes pertinent literature of major dipterous taxonomic groups where some success has been achieved or where work is currently being conducted on species breeding in aquatic (e.g., mosquitoes, blackflies, tabanids) and terrestrial habitats (muscids, tsetse, etc.). Most effort has been directed against aquatic Diptera because of the human and animal disease agents they transmit. Research has established that the natural enemy component frequently is responsible for significant population reduction and indispensable to integrated control which seeks to maintain populations below annoyance or disease transmission levels. The manipulation of natural enemies through introduction and/or augmentation has in some cases provided satisfactory control, and sustained releases of natural enemies over several years may overcome the relative high cost of massive release rates. Ultimately, to guarantee the existence and maximum expression of resident natural enemies has become almost universally accepted, and challenging, to sound control practices. Indeed, chemical industry recognizing this, has sought to manufacture products such as Bacillus toxins, juvenile hormones, and baits that are minimally disruptive to existing natural controls. Although such easily applied products have been widely adopted, their cost continues to become prohibitive with developing resistance, as was observed earlier with many organophosphate and chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. Further advancements in the control of these Diptera should continue to embrace a sound appreciation for the natural control component and nurture ways to allow its maximum expression.

Legner, E. F. and J. H. Poorbaugh, Jr. (1972). "Biological control of vector and noxious synanthropic flies: a review." California Vector Views 19(11): 81-100.
	Attempts made since the early 1900's to use natural enemies for the control of Musca domestica L., Fannia, pasture flies (including Musca autumnalis Deg. and Haematobia), flesh flies (Calliphorids and Sarcophagids) and some other synanthropic Diptera (Hippelates, Glossina and Tabanus) are reviewed from the literature. References to studies on the biology of natural enemies (mostly insects and mites) of the flies are listed, and the need for further research on biological control is pointed out.

Lehane, M. J. (2005). Biology of blood-sucking insects. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
	
Leprince, D. J. (1989). "Gonotrophic status, sperm presence and sugar feeding patterns in southwestern Quebec tabanid (Diptera) populations." Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 5(3): 383-386.
	Parity, stage of follicular development, sperm and fructose presence were determined for 6 tabanid species from southwestern Quebec during 2 consecutive years. Females were collected in canopy traps baited with or without carbon dioxide. Based on the presence or absence of host-seeking nulliparous flies (nullipars), Hybomitra epistates, H. nitidifrons nuda, H. sodalis, Tabanus lineola and T. similis were classified as being anautogenous. Hybomitra frontalis was classified as autogenous for its first ovarian cycle. Sperm was found in 88% and fructose was detected in 84% of the 700 specimens dissected. In anautogenous species, sperm and fructose prevalence was higher in pars than in nullipars.

Leprince, D. J. and M. Bigras-Poulin (1988). "Seasonal variation in body size and the relationships among body size, parity, and fecundity of host-seeking Tabanus quinquevittatus females (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 25(2): 105-110.
	Host-seeking females of T. quinquevittatus were collected in carbon-dioxide-baited and unbaited canopy traps in 1980 and 1981 in south-western Quebec. The wing length and parity of each individual were determined. The number of ovarioles was estimated from 125 specimens. The relationships of sampling years, sampling days, carbon dioxide, parity and fecundity to wing length were evaluated by linear regression analysis. There was a gradual decline in body size of females during the flight season in each year. Completion of a gonotrophic cycle and response to carbon dioxide were not related to body size. Fecundity could be estimated from wing length by a linear regression model.

Leprince, D. J. and M. Bigras-Poulin (1990). "Gonotrophic status, follicular development, sperm presence, and sugar-feeding patterns in a Hybomitra lasiophthalma population (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 27: 31-35.
	Parity, stage of follicular development, and presence of sperm and fructose or sucrose were monitored during two consecutive years in a population of Hybomitra lasiophthalma (Macquart). Females were collected in canopy traps with or without carbon dioxide. The trap catch increased four times with carbon dioxide (CO-2). Presence or absence of CO-2 had no significant effect on parity rates, prevalence of sperm and fructose, and the stage of primary follicular development within nulliparous (nullipars) and parous flies (pars). The percentage of parous flies was 38% (n = 306) in 1980 and 20% (n = 818) in 1981. The presence of 93% host-seeking nullipars with terminal follicles at stage II suggested that the population studied in southwestern Quebec (Canada) was anautogenous. Sperm was found in 83% and fructose in 84% of specimens dissected (n = 1,124); sperm presence was significantly higher in pars (89%) than in nullipars (81%).

LePrince, D. J. and L. D. Foil (1993). "Relationships among body size, blood meal size, egg volume, and egg production of Tabanus fuscicostatus (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 30: 865-871.
	Number of ovarioles, egg production, and weight of unfed and bloodfed Tabanus fuscicostatus Hine females were related linearly to wing length. Wing length did not change whether flies were freshly thawed, preserved in formalin solution, or oven dried. Left and right wings were similar in length. The length from the costa to the anterior cross vein or to the intersection of R4 and R5 veins was associated linearly to wing length. The number of eggs produced by flies bloodfed on one or two bovine hosts was similar when adjusted by wing length. The average number of ovarioles per female was 277 +/- 50 (+/- SD), and eggs developed in only 63% of the ovarioles after a bloodmeal. An estimated 3.1 eggs were produced for each milligram of blood ingested by a fly, and the average bloodmeal size was 110% of the unfed weight of the flies (49.7 mg). Egg volume was unrelated to body size, but was associated inversely with the number of eggs produced per female.

Leprince, D. J., L. D. Foil, et al. (1991). "Evaluation of pyrethroid ear tag and spray treatment of cattle against horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Entomological Science 26: 271-280.
	Permethrin and fenvalerate ear tags, and fenvalerate sprays (0.01 and 0.02%) were evaluated against tabanids under field conditions in Louisiana (USA). Residual concentration of insecticide in the hair from the head, side, back, abdomen, front and back legs of steers was measured after each fly collection period by gas chromatography. Mortality rates were reported relative to the feeding pattern of species of tabanids studied and insecticide concentration of different body regions. A total of 2,922 females belonging to three Tabanus species were collected. Mortality rates were 3% in controls, 9% in permethrin tag, 15% in fenvalerate tag, 67% in 0.01% fenvalerate spray and 79% in 0.02% fenvalerate spray treatments.

Leprince, D. J., L. D. Foil, et al. (1988). "Parasitism of Tabanus americanus (Diptera: Tabanidae) by Boophilus annulatus (Acari: Ixodidae)." Journal of Entomological Science 23(3): 274-275.
	A male of B. annulatus was found between the left wing and the calypter of a female of T. americanus which had been collected while feeding on a cow in Louisiana (in 1922 - the tick has since been eradicated from that state).

Leprince, D. J., L. J. Hribar, et al. (1991). "Seasonal patterns of abundance of horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) from two locations in southern Louisiana." Proceedings of the Louisiana Academy of Science 54: 10-18.
	Flight activity of horse flies collected in canopy traps baited with dry ice (carbon dioxide) extended from 15 March to 25 October 1987 in Louisiana, USA. A total of 125 020 flies belonging to 18 species was identified. As many as 7513 and 471 flies/trap/day were collected for Hybomitra lasiophthalma and Tabanus fuscicostatus, respectively. Among the most abundant species, Leucotabanus annulatus, T. fuscicostatus, T. lineola complex and T. petiolatus were bivoltine some years, while Chlorotabanus crepuscularis, H. lasiophthalma, T. americanus, T. calens, T. nigripes, T. pallidescens, T. proximus, T. trimaculatus and T. wilsoni were univoltine.

LePrince, D. J., L. J. Hribar, et al. (1992). "Evaluation of the toxicity and sublethal effects of lambda-cyhalothrin against horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) via bioassays and exposure to treated hosts." Bulletin of Entomological Research 82: 493-497.
	Mortality of Tabanus fuscicostatus Hine females, engorged to repletion on bullocks treated with lambda-cyhalothrin impregnated ear tags, or placed on treated bullocks for periods of 15, 30, 45 or 60 s but not allowed to feed, was equal to or greater than 96%, while from 0% to 8% mortality was observed for controls. Average feeding time was significantly lower in T. fuscicostatus fed on treated bullocks (33%) than in flies fed on control bullocks, but average engorged weight was not significantly different between treatments. Mortality of T. americanus Forster females, placed on the backs of treated bullocks but not allowed to feed for periods of 15, 30, 45 or 60 s, was 16%, 44%, 75% and 100%, respectively. Results of bioassays in which flies were exposed to treated filter paper (LC-50) or were topically treated (LD-50) are presented per fly and per weight for T. fuscicostatus and T. lineola complex.

Leprince, D. J., L. J. Hribar, et al. (1992). "Similar reproductive status and body size of horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) attracted to carbon dioxide-baited canopy traps and a Jersey bullock." Journal of Medical Entomology 29: 1056-1059.
	The reproductive status and body size of four Tabanus species collected from canopy traps baited with carbon dioxide and from a Jersey bullock were compared. Parity rates, sperm prevalence, stage of follicular development in terminal follicles of parous females, prevalence of females retaining eggs, average number of eggs retained in parous flies, and the body size of parous females did not differ significantly between sampling methods. Based on the presence of nulliparous host-seeking flies, Tabanus pallidescens Philip and T. wilsoni Pechuman can be added to the list of tabanids found to be anautogenous.

Leprince, D. J., L. J. Hribar, et al. (1994). "Responses of horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) to Jersey bullocks and canopy traps baited with ammonia, octenol, and carbon dioxide." Journal of Medical Entomology 31(5): 729-731.
	The attraction of females of six species of tabanids to stanchioned Jersey bullocks, unbaited canopy traps, and canopy traps baited with either octenol (1-octen-3-ol), ammonia (NH4OH), a combination of ammonia and octenol, or 5 kg of dry ice (CO2) was studied. A randomized Latin square design (treatments x sites x days) was used. Species diversity and number of flies captured in canopy traps unbaited or baited with octenol, ammonia, or the combination of octenol and ammonia did not differ significantly. Females of Tabanus americanus Forster, T. fuscicostatus Hine, and T. lineola F. were captured more frequently in CO2-baited canopy traps than on Jersey bullocks, but the reverse was observed for females of Leucotabanus annulatus (Say). The number of females of T. pallidescens Philip and T. wilsoni Pechuman collected from CO2-baited canopy traps and bullocks did not differ significantly

Leprince, D. J. and P. Jolicoeur (1986). "Annual, intra-, and inter-specific variations in body size and potential fecundity of some Tabanus species (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Canadian Entomologist 118(12): 1265-1272.
	Because egg production in Tabanus atratus, T. lineola, T. quinquevittatus and T. similis is not known in south-western Quebec, potential fecundity and body size were evaluated, respectively, from the analysis of ovariole number and wing length in field-collected females. Ovariole number appeared to be proportional to the 3rd power of wing length, and fecundity indices could be derived from that relationship. Significant differences in body size and potential fecundity of the species suggested that there were different reproductive strategies within the genus. Body size and potential fecundity varied significantly in 2 sampling years in T. lineola but not in T. quinquevittatus or T. similis.

Leprince, D. J. and P. Jolicoeur (1986). "Response to carbon dioxide of Tabanus quinquevittatus Wiedemann females (Diptera: Tabanidae) in relation to relative abundance, parity, follicle development, and sperm and fructose presence." Canadian Entomologist 118(12): 1273-1277.
	Carbon dioxide increased by 9-fold on average the number of females of Tabanus quinquevittatus collected in canopy traps in south-western Quebec without affecting parity rates, prevalence of sperm and fructose, and stage of terminal follicle development within nulliparous, parous or both groups of females together.

Leprince, D. J. and D. J. Lewis (1982). "Seasonal distribution of adult horse flies and deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) at lac Boivin, Granby, Quebec." Annals of the Entomological Society of Quebec 27(2): 94-99.
	The frequency and periods of occurrence are given of 29 species of tabanids in the genera Chrysops (15 species), Hybomitra (6), Tabanus (6) and Atylotus (2 species) that were collected as adults in the vicinity of a cattail (Typha spp.) marsh at lac Boivin, Granby, Quebec, in 1978. The most characteristic species appeared to be C. aberrans Philip, C. aestuans Wulp, C. mitis O.S. and C. sackeni Hine. Eleven species had a flight period of more than 6 weeks.

Leprince, D. J. and D. J. Lewis (1983). "Aspects of the biology of female Chrysops univittatus (Diptera: Tabanidae) in southwestern Quebec." Canadian Entomologist 115(4): 421-425.
	In observations on adults of Chrysops univittatus Macq. in south-western Quebec in 1980 and 1981, females were most abundant in late July and early August. Of the totals in baited (with carbon dioxide) and unbaited canopy traps, 60% of the nulliparous and 77% of the parous females were taken in baited traps. As determined by a cold anthrone test, 73% of the females had fed on nectar. For both nulliparous and parous females, 96% contained sperm. This species is considered to be anautogenous, and only one gonotrophic cycle was recorded following ovary dissection. The number of ovarioles was correlated with body size (as determined by wing length).

Leprince, D. J. and D. J. Lewis (1986). "Sperm presence and sugar feeding patterns in nulliparous and parous Tabanus quinquevittatus Wiedemann (Diptera: Tabanidae) in southwestern Quebec." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 79: 912-917.
	The population structure, sperm presence and sugar-feeding pattern of Tabanus quinquevittatus were studied during 2 consecutive years in south-western Quebec. Canopy traps, baited with carbon dioxide or unbaited, were used to collect females. Specimens were dissected for parity, sperm presence, fat-body reserve and stage of terminal follicle development. Diverticulae were tested for the presence of fructose or sucrose by the anthrone test. Parity was similar in both years, nulliparous flies being twice as abundant as parous flies. The prevalence of nulliparous specimens with terminal follicles in stage II suggested that the population studied in south-western Quebec is anautogenous. Sperm was found in 90% (n=1341) and sugar in 88% of specimens dissected; the percentages of sperm and sugar presence were significantly higher in parous than in nulliparous flies. Lower fat-body reserve and earlier stages of terminal follicle development were found in parous than in nulliparous flies.

Leprince, D. J., D. J. Lewis, et al. (1983). "Biology of male tabanids (Diptera) aggregated on a mountain summit in southwestern Quebec." Journal of Medical Entomology 20: 608-613.
	Males of 17 species of Chrysops, Hybomitra and Tabanus (some of them economic) were collected on the summit of Mount Rigaud in south-western Quebec, Canada. Male flight activity lasted from late May to late August, and the greatest species diversity occurred in mid-June. Males of each species were more abundant than females and usually had a longer seasonal distribution. Observed premating behaviour comprised hovering in the air and waiting on plants. Nectar was found (by cold anthrone tests) in 73% of the males, including 43% of waiting and 84% of hovering males. The commonest pollen grains observed on males of H. sodalis (Will.) came from nectar-bearing plants with large inflorescences. Sunlight stimulated male activity when the temperature was suitable for flight.

Leprince, D. J. and A. Maire (1990). "Parity, stage of follicular development, and sperm presence in hemiarctic host-seeking Hybomitra populations (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 27(5): 835-838.
	Parity, stage of follicular development, and sperm presence were monitored in six host-seeking Hybomitra species from the Gulf of Richmond (56 degree 20'N, 75 degree 80'W) along the eastern coast of Hudson Bay in northern Quebec in 1983. Parious flies represented 40, 31, 92, and 20% of H. aequetincta, H. arpadi, H. lurida, and H. zonalis populations, respectively. Only parous flies were found in H. frontalis and H. hearlei populations. Anautogeny in H. haequetincta and H. zonalis populations, and autogeny in the H. hearlei population, are reported for the first time. Sperm was detected in 84% of the flies; 63% had terminal follicles at stage II (n = 711). Sperm prevalence was higher in parous than in nulliparous flies of anautogenous species.

Levine, J. F., M. G. Levy, et al. (1992). "Attempted mechanical transfer of Ehrlichia risticii by tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 29(5): 806-812.
	The ability of tabanid mouthparts to retain and to transfer mechanically Ehrlichia risticii Holland, Weiss, Burgdorfer, Cole & Kakoma was evaluated by feeding flies on infected and noninfected mice and on capillary tubes containing infected cells and cell-free medium. Flies representing two genera and 29 species were collected at equine boarding stables, farms, and along riding trails in Wake, Johnston, and Duplin counties in North Carolina for the feeding trials. Two species, Tabanus fulvulus Wiedemann and T. pallidescens Philip, fed on mice but failed to transfer the pathogen from infected to susceptible mice. Chrysops vittatus Wiedemann, Tabanus americanus Forster, and T. sulcifrons Macquart transferred E. risticii-infected cells from capillary tubes containing infected cells in medium to tubes containing medium. These studies document that E. risticii-infected cells can be retained on mouthparts and potentially transferred by tabanids.

Lewis, D. J. (1960). "Notes on Chrysops bicolor Cordier (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Tanganyika." Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society London (A) 335: 75-78.
	
Lewis, D. J. (1987). "Biting flies (Diptera) of peatlands and marshes in Canada." Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada 140: 133-140.
	A review of the literature on biting flies of Canadian bogs, fens and marshes reveals that 21 species of Culicidae, 43 species of Tabanidae and 6 species of Ceratopogonidae are known to occur in such habitats. Of these 70 species of biting flies, 45 occur in bogs, 22 in fens and 36 in marshes. Although the species composition of wetland culicids is largely known, immatures of many species of the tabanids and ceratopogonids have yet to be collected and/or described. Almost nothing is known about the biology of the immature stages in wetland habitats. Most species known to inhabit wetlands have been recorded from both peatlands and marshes, but there are representatives of all families that appear to be restricted to a particular type of wetland. Compounding this paucity of information on the biting flies of Canadian wetlands is the inconsistency and lack of specificity in describing wetland habitats.

Lewis, D. J. and G. F. Bennett (1977). "Biting flies of the eastern maritime provinces of Canada. I. Tabanidae." Canadian Journal of Zoology 55: 1493-1503.
	A list is provided of 57 species of tabanids that have been taken in maritime Canada, including 31 that were collected in 1973-76 in the Maritime Provinces, especially the border region of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, together with notes on the numbers taken on man or cattle and in barns, traps or trucks, and on the seasonal succession and abundance of about 20 species in the Tantramar Marshes in 1974. Fifteen species were collected feeding on man and 9 on cattle. Generally, species of Chrysops were more annoying to man and Hybomitra on cattle. Keys are provided to the genera represented (Stonemyia, Chrysops, Haematopota, Atylotus, Hybomitra and Tabanus) and to the species in these genera (except for Haematopota, which is known from only one species, and was not taken in the present study).

Lewis, D. J. and G. F. Bennett (1978). "Erratum: Biting flies of the eastern Maritime provinces of Canada. I. Tabanidae." Canadian Journal of Zoology 56(5): 1221.
	A couplet was inadvertently omitted from a key to the species of Hybomitra in an earlier paper on the Tabanidae of the eastern Maritime provinces of Canada.

Lewis, D. J. and D. J. Leprince (1981). "Horse flies and deer flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) feeding on cattle in southwestern Quebec." Canadian Entomologist 113(10): 883-886.
	Four species of each of the genera Chrysops, Hybomitra and Tabanus were collected while feeding on cattle in south-western Quebec; T. quinquevittatus Wied. accounted for 75% of the tabanids. The more abundant species had a flight period of at least 5 weeks. Nearly 90% of the flies were positive for fructose (an important sugar in floral and extrafloral nectars) as determined by the cold anthrone test.

Liscia, A., A. M. Angioy, et al. (1982). "Chemosensilla on labella, tarsi and antennae of Chrysops fuliginosus Wied.: a preliminary electrophysiological study." Bollettino della Societa Italiana di Biologia Sperimentale 58(11): 673-677.
	Electrophysiological laboratory tests of responses to salt and sucrose by adult females of Chrysops fuliginosus Wied. from Massachusetts showed that contact chemoreceptors were located on their labella, tarsi and antennae. Each of these chemosensilla had more than 1 chemosensory unit (a least 4 in the labellar and tarsal sensilla and 3 in the antennal ones). Both salt and sucrose solutions proved to be active stimulants.

Liscia, A., A. M. Angioy, et al. (1982). "Electrophysiological activity of labella and tarsal chemosensilla of Hybomitra lasiophthalma (Macquart) to stimulation with NaCl and various sugars." Bollettino della Societa-Italiana di Biologia Sperimentale 58(11): 666-672.
	In the laboratory, the responses from the labellar and tarsal chemosensilla of adult females of Hybomitra lasiophthalma (Macq.) from Massachusetts, USA, to stimulation with salt or sugars (sucrose, glucose, fructose or galactose) were recorded electrophysiologically. The results demonstrated the existence of 4 chemosensory units (including units sensitive to water, salt and sugar separately) in each chemosensillum. Sensitivity thresholds for salt (above 50 mm) and sucrose (above 100 mm) were determined. Sucrose and galactose proved to be more active as stimulants than were fructose and glucose.

Liscia, A., R. Crnjar, et al. (1982). "Ovipositor chemosensilla in Tabanus nigrovittatus (Macq.) Chrysops fuliginosus (Wied.), and Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh)." Bollettino della Societa-Italiana di Biologia Sperimentale 58(20): 1325-1329.
	The possible presence of chemosensilla in the ovipositor region has been investigated in three different pest insect species by means of the standard tip-recording electrophysiological technique. Results showed that hair-like structures responding to chemical stimulation were located at the lower-inner edge of the anal leaflets in Tabanus nigro Macq. as well as in Chrysops fuliginosus Wied, whereas peg-like chemosensilla proved to be located in two longitudinal grooves at the apical portion of the ovipositor in Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh.. At least 3 chemosensory units could be detected in each chemosensillum tested. No hair-or peg-like structure on the ovipositor region other than that we described showed any chemosensory responsiveness.

Lloyd, D. H. and O. O. Dipeolu (1974). "Seasonal prevalence of flies feeding on cattle in Northern Nigeria." Tropical Animal Health and Production 6(4): 231-236.
	In a survey of the flies on cattle at a beef cattle ranch in the Sudan savanna zone of Northern Nigeria, catches were made one day a month for 2 h in the morning and 2 h in the mid-afternoon, all flies landing on a bull were caught. Between mid-June 1971 and mid-May 1972, 4256 flies were collected, 3210 of which were Musca lusoria Wied., 420 were Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) and 340 were S. nigra Macq. Two species of Haematobia and one each of Tabanus, Haematopota, Chrysops, Simulium and Culicoides were caught. Flies were most abundant in October-November and February-March.

Logan, J. G. and M. A. Birkett (2007). "Semiochemicals for biting fly control: their identification and exploitation." Pest Management Science 63: 647-657.
	Insects that feed on the blood of vertebrates are difficult to control, and many previous efforts have been unsuccessful. This is becoming an ever increasing issue, not only in developing countries, but also in developed countries, as exemplified by the recent spread of West Nile virus by mosquitoes across the USA and recent dengue outbreaks in Singapore and Australia. Investigating the ways in which biting insects interact with each other, their environment and their hosts is providing valuable knowledge that will lead to the development of improved control technologies. For instance, recent advances in chemical ecology research have led to the identification of new semiochemicals that show great potential as control agents against biting insects. Exciting new chemical ecology tools and control technologies for the future are discussed.

Luckins, A. G. (1988). "Trypanosoma evansi in Asia." Parasitology Today 4: 137-142.
	This review of T. evansi infection of livestock in Asia covers the current situation, pathology and pathogenesis, and biochemical and immunological characterization.

Lun, Z. R., Y. Fang, et al. (1993). "Trypanosomiasis of domestic animals in China." Parasitology Today 9: 41-45.
	
Lunau, K. and H. Knüttel (1995). "Vision through colored eyes." Naturwissenschaften 82: 432-434.
	
Lutta, A. S. (1970). Horseflies (Diptera Tabanidae) of Karelia. (Slepni (Diptera Tabanidae) Karelii). Leningrad, Akademiia nauk SSSR. Nauchnyi sovet po probleme "Biologicheskie osnovy osvoeniia, rekonstruktsii i okhrany zhivotnogo mira." Karelskii filial. A.S. Dutta, Nauka, leningradskoe otd-nie.
	
Lutta, A. S. and K. I. Bykova (1970). Horseflies (Tabanidae family) of the European north of the USSR. (Slepni (Diptera, Tabanidae) Karelii evropeiskogo severa SSSR). Leningrad, Nauka, leningradskoe otd-nie.
	
Lutta, A. S. and K. I. Bykova (1982). Horseflies (Tabanidae family) of the European north of the USSR (Slepni (sem. Tabanidae) Evropeiskogo severa SSSR). Leningrad, Akademiya Nauk SSSR. Karel'skii filial. Institut biologii.
	
Mackerras, I. M. (1954). "The classification and distribution of Tabanidae (Diptera). I. General review." Australian Journal of Zoology 3(3): 431-454.
	The old primary classification of the Tabanidae, based on the presence or absence of hind tibia1 spurs, has been replaced by one based primarily on the genitalia of both sexes, but supported by a significant, though not complete, correlation with external characters. The early stages, so far as known, support the new arrangement. The following subfamilies and tribes are recognized: Pangoniinae Scepsidinae Chrysopinae Tabaninue Pangoniini Bouvieromyiini Diachlorini Scionini Chrysopini Haematopotini Philolichini Rhinomyzini Tabanini Distribution of the family is world-wide, but can be divided into three main sections. More primitive groups are predominantly southern, occurring in some or all of South America, southern Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, with occasional northern extensions, and, in one case (Pangoniini), an extensive Holarctic arc. More specialized groups show two patterns. Southern regional radiations have occurred in South America and Africa, with extensions respectively into the Nearctic and Oriental-Australasian regions. Northern radiation of Chrysopini,Haematopotini, and Tabanini has resulted in a radial distribution like that of the eutherian mammals.

Mackerras, I. M. (1955). "The classification and distribution of Tabanidae (Diptera). II. History, morphology, classification. Subfamily Pangoniinae." Australian Journal of Zoology 3(3): 439-511.
	Classifications proposed in the past are reviewed, the male and female genitalia described in some detail, and the relationships which they indicate found to agree with those suggested by the known larvae and pupae. Parallel evidence from external characters of the adults is partly obscured by convergent evolution between the subfamilies. Pelecorhynchus, Bequaertomyia, and Heterostomus are excluded from the Tabanidae. The genera of Pangoniinae are defined. The following cannot be placed from descriptions: Palaearctic - Scaptiella End. ; spp. described as Corizoneura. Nearctic - Zophina Philip. Neotropical- Leptofidena Krob. The suggested arrangement of the remaining genera is as follows, those placed tentatively from descriptions being indicated by an interrogation mark. PANGONIINI Palaearctic - Pangonius Latr., with possible subgenera Pangonius Latr., Tanyglossa Mg., and ?Ectinocerella Seg. Nearctic-Esenbeckia Rond.; Apatolestes Will.; Brennania Philip; Pilimas Bren.; Stonemyia Bren.; Asaphomyia Stone. Neotropical- Esenbeckia Rond.; Proboscoides Phil.; Chaetopalpus Phil.; Protodasyapha End.; ?Histriosilvius Krob.; ?Protosilvius End. Australasian - Austroplex, gen. nov. (type goldfinchi, sp. nov.) ; Ectenopsis Macq., with subgenera Ectenopsis Macq., Leptonopsis, subgen. nov. (type vittata, sp. nov.), Parasilvius Ferg., and Paranopsis, subgen. nov. (type lutulentus Hut.); Caenoprosopon Ric.; Therevopangonia, gen. nov. (type insolita, sp. nov.). SCIONINI Nearctic - Goniops Aldr. Neotropical - Mycteromyia Phil.; Pityocera G.-T.; Elaphella Bezzi; Scione Walk.; Fidena Walk.; Scaptia Walk., with subgenera Scaptia Walk., Pseudoscione Lutz et al., and'Pseudomelpia End. Ethiopian - Scaptia Walk., subgenus Pseudoscione only.* Australasian -Australia : Scaptia Walk., with subgenera Scaptia, Pseudoscione, Myioscaptia, subgen. nov. (type violacea Macq.), Plinthina Walk., and Palimmecomyia Tayl. New Guinea : Pseudoscione only. New Zealand : Pseudoscione only. PHILOLICHINI Ethiopian - Buplex Aust.; Ommatiosteres End.; Philoliche Wied. (syns. Nuceria Walk., Metaphara End.) ; Stenophara End.; Dorcaloemus Aust.; Phara Walk.; Subpangonia Surc. Oriental and Northern Australasian - Philoliche Wied.

Mackerras, I. M. (1955). "The classification and distribution of Tabanidae (Diptera). III. Subfamilies Scepsidinae and Chrysopinae." Australian Journal of Zoology 3(4): 583-633.
	The following genera are recognized in the subfamilies reviewed in the present paper : SCEPSIDINAE Neotropical : Scepsis Walk. Ethiopian: Adersia Aust.; Braunsiomyia Beq. Lesneus Surc. is excluded from the Tabanidae. CHRYSOPINAE BOUVIEROMYIINI Nearctic : Merycomyia Hine. Neotropical: Merycomyia (northern) ; Mesomyia Macq., subgenus Veprius Rond. (southern). Ethiopian: Mesomyia Macq., subgenera Mesomyia, Perisilvius End., and Bacloceras Aust.; Dasgcompsa End.; Pronopes Loew; Rhigioglossa Wied.; Aegophagamyia Aust.; Bouvieromyia Strand; ?Triclida End. Oriental : Eucompsa End. Australasian: Mesomyia Macq., subgenera Vepriella, nov. (type frontalie Ric.), Pareucompsa End., Lilaea Walk., Pseudotabanus Ric., and Mesomyia; Phibalomyia Tayl.; Pseudopangonia Ric. CHRYSOPINI Palaearctic: Chrysops Mg.; Silvius Mg., subgenus Silvius. Nearctic: Chrysops; Silvius, subgenera Silvius, Zeuximyia Philip, and Assipala Philip. Neotropical: Chrysops; Silvius, subgenus Assipala (northern). Ethiopian: Chrysops. Oriental : Chrysops; Silvius, subgenus Silvius (extreme northern). Australasian : Chrysops (northern). RHINOMYZINI Ethiopian: Tabanocella Big.; Sphecodemyia Aust.; Orgixomyia Grunb.; Thaumastocera Grunb.; Thriambeutes Grunb.; Hinea Adams. Oriental: Gastroxides Saund.; Rhinowyxa Wied. Surcoufia Krob. (Palaearctic) and Melissomorpha Ric. (northern Oriental) are accepted as presumably Chrysopinae, but cannot be allotted to a tribe from the descriptions. Evaluation of possible subgenera of Chrysops is not attempted in the present work.

Mackerras, I. M. (1956). "The Tabanidae (Diptera) of Australia. I. General review." Australian Journal of Zoology 4: 376-407.
	About 230 species of Tabanidae are now known to occur in Australia, Tasmania, and the Torres Strait islands. Nearly 90 per cent. belong to four ancient tribes, which are widely distributed and successful in the southern hemisphere, namely: Pangoniini (18 Australian species), Scionini (63), Bouvieromyiini (38), and Diachlorini (92). The more recent Oriental element comprises 20 Tabanini and one Chrysops. A small, retrograde, Papuan migration is included in the figures for Bouvieromyiini and Diachlorini. About 190 specific names are accepted as valid, there are more than 120 synonyms, 28 described species remain unrecognized, and about 40 species are undescribed. Many of the species can be identified at present only by reference to the Ferguson Collection in the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, University of Sydney, and the information about them is scattered in many papers. The primary purpose of this series, therefore, is to arrange the species in accordance with modern classification, present keys and adequate descriptions to facilitate their identification, and record what is known of their biology. In the present Part, an attempt is made to provide the basic historical and practical information that will assist the new student of the family, together with a key to the subfamilies and tribes, and the references for the whole series. The tribes will be reviewed individually in subsequent Parts of this series.

Mackerras, I. M. (1956). "The Tabanidae (Diptera) of Australia. II. Subfamily Pangoniinae, tribe Pangoniini." Australian Journal of Zoology 4: 408-443.
	The Australian Pangoniini include the most primitive known Tabanidae. Most are low-flying insects, which do not suck blood. They show progressive reduction in mandibles of the female, divisions of the third antenna1 segment, and hind tibia1 spurs. Their principal distribution is east coastal, from Torres Strait to southern New South Wales; there is a secondary centre of evolution in Western Australia; they are not known from Tasmania. Eighteen species are recognized, distributed among seven genera and subgenera, as follows: Austroplex, 3; Ectenopsis (Ectenopsis), 4; Ectenopsis (Parasilvius), 4; Ectenopsis (Leptonopsis), 2; Caenoprosopon, 4; Therevopangonia, 1. Three new species are described from Western Australia: Ectenopsis (?Ectenopsis) occidentalis, B ; Ectenopsis (Parasilvius) fusca, B, @ ; Ectenopsis (Leptonopsis) norrisi, B .

Mackerras, I. M. (1957). "The Tabanidae (Diptera) of New Zealand." Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand 84: 581-610.
	
Mackerras, I. M. (1960). "The Tabanidae (Diptera) of Australia. III. Subfamily Pangoniinae, tribe Scionini and supplement to Pangoniini." Australian Journal of Zoology 8: 1-152.
	The Australian Scionini belong to five subgenera of the genus Scaptia, namely: Scaptia, known from South America and Australia, with 28 Australian species; Pseudoscione, known from South America, Australia, New Guinea, and New Zealand, with 25 Australian species; Myioscaptia (7 species), Plinthina (7 species), and Palimmecomyia (2 species), known only from Australia. Many of the species suck blood, but some appear to feed only on flowers, chiefly of Leptospermum. Larvae and pupae of one species each of the subgenera Scaptia, Pseudoscione, and Myioscaptia are known. The principal concentration of species is in eastern New South Wales, with radiation north end south, and subsidiary concentrations in north Queensland and south-western Western Australia. The subgenus Plinthina has developed mainly in Western Australia. The Pleistocene glacial cycles are believed to have had a profound effect on speciation in the genus. The following new species and subspecies are described in the respective subgenera : Scaptia: barbara, B @, N.S.W., S. Qld. ; norrisi, B @, N.S.W., N. Qld. ; aurinotum, @, N.S.W. ; minuscula, B @, W.A. ; auranticula, B @, W.A. ; orba, @, N.S.W. ; alpina alpina, B @, N.S.W., Vic. ; alpina hardyi, B @, N.S.W. ; similis, B @, N.S.W., Qld. Pseudoscione: orientalis, B @, N.S.W., Vic.; guttipennis occidentalis, B @, W.A.; calabyi, B @, W.A.; neoconcolor, B @, N.Qld.; anomala, B @, N.S.W., Vic. Myioscaptia: calliphora, B @, N.S.W.; nigrocincta, @, N. Qld.; nigroapicalis, B @, N.S.W. Plinthina: nigerrima, @, N.S.W. ; subcinerea, B @, W.A. Palimmecomyia: pictipennis, @, S. Aust., ? W.A. Scaptia (Scaptia) monticola, nom. nov., is proposed for montana Ricardo nec Hutton. Two species are added to the Pangoniini: Ectenopsis (Ectenopsis) erratica (Walk.), B, W.A., previously unrecognized; and Caenoprosopon dycei, sp, nov., B, N.S.W. Ommia prisca End. is transferred from the synonymy of Ectenopsis (Parasilvius) victoriensis Ferg. to the synonymy of Mesomyia (Lilaea) lurida (Walk.), Chrysopinae.

Mackerras, I. M. (1961). "The Tabanidae (Diptera) of Australia. IV. Subfamily Chrysopinae." Australian Journal of Zoology 9: 827-905.
	The subfamily Chrysopinae is represented in Australia by 1 species of Chrysops (Chrysopini) and 36 species of Bouvieromyiini, distributed in the monotypic genera Phibalomyia and Pseudopangonia, and 4 subgenera of Mesomyia, namely: Lilaea (6 species), Perisilvius (1, a Papuan intrusion), Pseudotabanus (distincta group 8, lunulata group 5, silvester group 6), Mesomyia (8). Elements of both southern and northern origin are represented. Most species of Mesomyia suck blood; the egg mass of M. (Pseudotabanus) silvester (Bergr.) and the larva and pupa of M. (Lilaea) fuliginosa (Tayl.) are known. Distribution of the subfamily in Australia is wide in the Bassian, Torresian, and Eyrean divisions, with a preponderance of species in the north. The semi-arid phases of the Pleistocene climatic cycles are believed to have had a major influence on speciation. The following new species of Mesomyia are described in the respective subgenera : Lilaea: norrisi, @ , W.A., ?Vic. Pseudotabanus: burnsi, @ , N. Qld.; eyreana, @ , W.A.; fulvissima, @ , N.W.A.; obscura, @ , N.T., N. Qld.; pulla, B @ , N.S.W. Mesomyia: latifrons, @ , ? B, S. Aust.; nigerrima, @ , W.A. Vepriella Mackerras is reduced to the rank of a species group in the subgenus Pseudotabanus, and Mesomyia (Pseudotabanus) taylori, nom. nov., is proposed for distinctus Taylor nec Ricardo.

Mackerras, I. M. (1964). "The Tabanidae (Diptera) of New Guinea." Pacific Insects 6: 69-210.
	
Mackerras, I. M. (1971). "The Tabanidae (Diptera) of Australia. V. Subfamily Tabaninae, tribe Tabanini." Australian Journal of Zoology. Supplementary series 4: 1-54.
	The tribe Tabanini is represented in the region only by the genus Tabanus, the Australian species-groups, except possibly umbripennis, being of Oriental-Papuan origin and Torresian local distribution. Twenty-five species are recognized, of which one is inadequately known for description. New species described: maini and calabyi from south-western Western Australia, subcinerescens from the Northern Territory, and wyndhamensis from the Kimberley district of Western Australia. New synonymy: breinli Ferg. & Hill = cohaerens Walk.

Mackerras, I. M. (1972). "Melanesian-Pacific Tabanus (Diptera : Tabanidae)." Pacific Insects 14(1): 133-149.
	The 17 species of Tabanus known from the chain of islands extending from Manus, north of New Guinea, through the New Hebrides to Fiji and Samoa, are reviewed, and a key given to the females of 15 of them together with notes on distribution within the area. Seven species are described as new. The relationships between the species studied and the Papuan fauna are discussed, and references are made to evidence of possible speciation within the chain.

Mackerras, I. M. and J. Rageau (1958). "Tabanidae (Diptera) du Pacifique Sud." Annales de Parasitologie humaine et compareé 33: 671-742.
	
Mackerras, I. M. and J. Rageau (1959). "An annotated catalog of described Australian Tabaninae (Diptera) du Pacifique Sud." Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales 84: 160-185.
	
Mackey, A. P. and H. M. Brown (1980). "The pupae of Atherix ibis (Fabricius) and A. marginata (Fabricius) (Diptera: Rhagionidae) and a key to the families of the aquatic Brachycera based on the pupae." Entomologist's Gazette 31(3): 157-161.
	This paper includes a key for separating the pupae of 5 families of Diptera (Stratiomyidae, Empididae, Dolichopodidae, Tabanidae and Rhagionidae) with species having aquatic immature stages.

Magadza, C. H. D. (1978). "Field observations on the environmental effect of large-scale aerial applications of endosulfan in the eradication of Glossina morsitans centralis Westw. in the Western Province of Zambia in 1968." Rhodesian Journal of Agricultural Research 16(2): 211-220.
	A field survey was conducted to investigate the environmental impact of the large-scale aerial application of endosulfan at 2.8 kg/km2 to eradicate Glossina morsitans centralis Machado from an area of 1632 km2 in the Sinjambela District of the Western Province of Zambia. Collections of arthropods from sprayed areas, ground observations during spraying sorties, estimates of predacious insects (especially Odonata), the application of double doses of the insecticide, and other general observations revealed no deleterious effects on non-target animal species. However, unsprayed woodland had 3 non-target Diptera (Tabanus taeniola P. de B., T. fraternus Macq. and T. biguttatus Wied.) that were not recorded in the sprayed area. Other haematophagous muscids that were present during the spraying operations, including Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) and 4 species of Haematopota, were found in both sprayed and unsprayed areas. The G. m. centralis was completely eliminated, and the area has been free of it for years; the success of the method is attributed to the high susceptibility to endosulfan of tsetse in comparison to other animals.

Magnarelli, L. A. (1976). "Physiological age of Tabanidae (Diptera) in eastern New York state, U.S.A." Journal of Medical Entomology 12: 679-682.
	The physiological age and developmental stages of terminal follicles were determined for females of 30 species of tabanid (12 of Chrysops, 8 of Hybomitra and 10 of Tabanus) in New York State. During July 1974, 21 species were obtained in canopy trap and sweep collections; H. lasiophthalma (Macq.) was the most abundant species in the canopy trap during June and July. Of 1789 females collected, 1523 were dissected to determine physiological age and stage of follicle development. Nullipars with follicles in stage II were most frequently collected; stage II ovarian diapause was observed in most species. Populations of the following species were anautogenous: C. carbonarius Wlk. (ater Macq.), C. callidus O.-S., C. indus O.-S., C. macquarti Philip, C. vittatus Wied., H. epistates (O.-S.), H. illota (O.-S.), H. lasiophthalma, H. nuda (McDunn.), H. trispila sodalis (Will.) (H. sodalis), T. lineola (F.), T. quinquevittatus Wied., T. similis Macq., T. sparus milleri Whitney and T. sulcifrons Macq. Of parous examples having sac-stage follicular tubes, 55% had yolk deposited in terminal follicles, while 99% of pars with distinct "yellow bodies" had follicles in this condition.

Magnarelli, L. A. (1985). "Blood feeding and oviposition by tabanids (Diptera) in the laboratory." Journal of Medical Entomology 22(6): 600-603.
	
Magnarelli, L. A. (1985). "Caloric reserves in salt marsh deer flies, Chrysops fuliginosus (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 78: 594-599.
	The behaviour of adults of Chrysops fuliginosus was observed near a salt marsh in Milford, Connecticut, during 1978, 1979 and 1982-83. Males and females were analysed by a chemical test to quantify available caloric reserves in mating, resting and blood-seeking individuals. Mean available energy reserves were highest in males (mean = 2.7 cal/mg) and females (mean = 2.5 cal/mg) captured in copula. There were no appreciable differences between these groups and males resting on vegetation (mean = 2.6 cal/mg), but lower amounts of mean available caloric reserves were noted for females resting on vegetation (mean = 1.2 cal/mg) or seeking vertebrate hosts (mean = 1.4 cal/mg). The relatively higher caloric values recorded for copulating C. fuliginosus and resting males were attributed to nectar-feeding and quantities of stored reserves remaining after eclosion.

Magnarelli, L. A. (1985). "Hovering and swarming behavior of males of Hybomitra lasiophthalma and Hybomitra aurilimba (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Myia 3: 475-484.
	Males of H. lasiophthalma and H. aurilimba hovered and swarmed in a sunlit area of Connecticut during June or July of 1977-82. These activities occurred mainly during mornings and at temperatures of 17-30°C. Males of each species coexisted at hovering sites in low numbers (4-6) during early July, but the frequency of intraspecific interactions exceeded the number of interspecific encounters. Distances between hovering males and frequencies of interactions varied with the number of individuals present. There was no evidence of pair formation or mating. Anthrone reagent detected fructose or sucrose in >43% of the 331 males analysed; rates of sugar positivity were highest (_70%) early in the day.

Magnarelli, L. A. (1987). "Parity and sugar feeding in Atylotus bicolor (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of the New York Entomological Society 95(4): 487-490.
	During 1983-85, females of A. bicolor were collected in dry-ice baited canopy traps at 4 sites in Connecticut. Parity and stage of follicle development were determined for 52 females, all of which completed at least 1 gonotrophic cycle and had terminal ovarian follicles in early stages of development. Nearly half of the females contained detectable amounts of fructose. It is suspected that females produce eggs without blood-meals during the first ovarian cycle and metabolize sugars for survival and dispersal.

Magnarelli, L. A. and J. F. Anderson (1977). "Follicular development in salt marsh Tabanidae (Diptera) and incidence of nectar feeding with relation to gonotrophic activity." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 70(4): 529-533.
	Yolk deposition commenced during pupation of Chrysops fuliginosus Wied. and C. atlanticus Pechuman but did not begin in Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq. until after the female emerged. C. fuliginosus and T. nigrovittatus females autogenously matured eggs in the laboratory without sugar meals during the first genotrophic cycle. Parous, fructose-positive C. fuliginosus were more abundant in a forest habitat (50%of the sample) than were blood-seeking females in the salt marsh (25%). There was little difference in the frequency of recent nectar feeding for C. atlanticus (20.9 and 21.0%) in the two habitats, and, in the marsh, comparatively fewer T. nigrovittatus contained detectable sugars (12.1%). Small amounts of fat-body were observed in anterior abdominal segments of parous, field-collected tabanids but, since no females completed a second ovarian cycle, it was believed nectar sugars are a main source of nutrient for female sustenance.

Magnarelli, L. A. and J. F. Anderson (1978). "Distribution and development of immature salt marsh Tabanidae (Diptera)." Journal of Medical Entomology 14(5): 573-578.
	A study plot measuring 54 000 m2 on Cat Island in the Housatonic River in Connecticut was systematically sampled in order to determine the distribution of the larvae of Chrysops fuliginosus Wied., C. atlanticus Pechuman and Tabanus nigrovittatus Macq. in a regularly flooded salt marsh with Spartina alterniflora as the predominant plant. Of the 96 soil samples washed, 64.5% contained larvae of C. fuliginosus, while only 14.6% yielded C. atlanticus and 17.7% T. nigrovittatus. C. fuliginosus had a highly contagious distribution and coexisted with the other 2 species in 11 soil samples. There was a significant negative correlation between the numbers of C. fuliginosus and distance from drainage ditches. The occurrence of larvae of C. atlanticus was significantly correlated with salinity and organic content of the soil samples, and immature stages of this species were collected from very wet depression areas bordering drainage ditches. Immature stages of T. nigrovittatus were abundant throughout the open marsh in surface sediments that contained accumulations of wet matted vegetation, but larval distribution was not correlated with soil salinity. Both large and small larvae of C. fuliginosus and T. nigrovittatus were present in the marsh in all seasons, and this and the inability of relatively small larvae to pupate in the laboratory suggest that some larvae of these species take at least 2 years to mature.

Magnarelli, L. A. and J. F. Anderson (1979). "Oogenesis and oviposition in Chrysops atlanticus (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 72(3): 350-352.
	Chrysops atlanticus Pechuman females contained as much as 50% yolk in ovarian follicles one day after eclosion. Autogenous egg development was completed within 10 days of adult emergence. C. atlanticus also produced and deposited eggs in the laboratory following the ingestion of human blood, but neither the rate of follicular development nor fecundity significantly differed when autogenous and anautogenous cycles were compared. In the 40 egg-masses collected from Spartina alterniflora leaves, egg numbers averaged 167.6 and ranged from 15 to 256; hatch rates averaged 78%. Sucrose supplements (10% solutions) enhanced the survival of females in the laboratory by an average of 20 days but had no apparent affect on fecundity. No more than one follicular relic could be found per ovariole in field-caught, host-seeking flies or in a blood-fed female that had oviposited in the laboratory; thus, the reliability of the Polovodova method for physiological age determination of this species is questionable.

Magnarelli, L. A. and J. F. Anderson (1979). "Oviposition, fecundity, and fertility of the salt marsh deer fly, Chrysops fuliginosus (Diptera: Tabanidae)." Journal of Medical Entomology 15(2): 176-179.
	A method of obtaining large numbers of fertile eggs of Chrysops fuliginosus Wied. in the laboratory is reported. The number of eggs laid by inseminated and virgin females exceeded 100 during the first ovarian cycle; hatch rates ranged between 73 and 84%. The number of virgin females that oviposited was inversely proportional to the length of time larvae had been held in captivity. Females allowed to feed on 10% sucrose solutions oviposited more readily than did unfed females, but fecundity was unaffected by the addition of sugar supplements. Follicular degeneration, marked by irregular yolk distribution and degenerated follicular epithelium, was observed in 5 unfed females. Two egg-masses, containing 18 and 26 eggs, were found in the salt marsh on the undersides of Spartina alterniflora leaves overhanging drainage ditches.

Magnarelli, L. A. and J. F. Anderson (1980). "Blood and sugars are needed to nourish deer flies and horse flies." Frontiers of Plant Science 32(2): 7-8.
	During a study carried out in Connecticut on the feeding of horse-flies [Tabanidae] and deer-flies [Chrysops spp.], 2559 specimens were examined, of which 271 (10.6%) had partial blood-meals. The majority of these were from cattle, but deer, dog, horse and rabbit blood was also found. It was also found that females of 33 inland and 3 coastal tabanid species fed on nectar sugars as well as on vertebrate blood. Subsequent laboratory experiments showed that female tabanids that ingested both blood and sugar lived 2-3 weeks longer than those fed on blood and distilled water. In other tests, females that had fed on sucrose solutions but were not given blood lived as long as those that had taken blood and sugar meals.

Magnarelli, L. A. and J. F. Anderson (1980). "Feeding behavior of Tabanidae (Diptera) on cattle and serologic analyses of partial blood meals." Environmental Entomology 9(5): 664-667.
	In studies in Connecticut, the feeding